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Cognitive Psychology
Psych 224 Final Exam
84
Psychology
Undergraduate 2
08/05/2010

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Term
Language
Definition
Communication of complex thoughts and emotions
Term
Semantics
Definition
meaning (level of language)
Term
Morpheme
Definition
smallest meaningful unit (example: the s in "dogs" means more than one dog)
Term
Phonology
Definition
sound (level of meaning)
Term
Phoneme
Definition
smallest significant sound unit
Term
Syntax
Definition
grammatical structure (level of language)
Term
Defining properties of language
Definition
Structured (multiple levels), arbitrary, and generative
Term
Arbitrary
Definition
sound has no relation to meaning
Term
Generative
Definition
can create infinite numbers of new sentences
Term
Mental lexicon
Definition
Dictionary in your brain; around 50,000 words
Term
Speech errors
Definition
slips of the tongue
Term
Speech corpus
Definition
large database of spoken language
Term
Aphasia
Definition
language impairment after brain damage
Term
Broca's Aphasia
Definition
can't come up with words; difficulty speaking
Term
Wernicke's aphasia
Definition
semantics and syntax problem
Term
Language comprehension
Definition
Hold sounds in STM, recognize wordss and retrieve from LTM, understand structure of sentence to get meaning, make inferences about the meaning
Term
Ambiguity
Definition
usually more than one possible interpretation; a main challenge of language
Term
McGurk effect
Definition
perceived phoneme is synthesis of visual and auditory input (ga, ba, da exmaple)
Term
Phoneme restoration effect
Definition
perceive noise as phoneme consistent with word (legislature example); example of top down effects in speech perception
Term
Word recognition (for where one word ends and the next begins)
Definition
Look for familiar patterns; more frequently used words are more easily recognized
Term
Word recognition (for choosing which ambiguous word to use)
Definition
Activate all meanings of ambiguous words briefly, but quickly use context to resolve ambiguity
Term
Parsing
Definition
determining the syntax (grammatical structure of a sentence)
Term
Garden path sentence
Definition
starts out with one structure, but then turns out to have another (The old train the young.)
Term
Category
Definition
a meaningful grouping of things
Term
Exemplar
Definition
an individual member of a category
Term
Concept
Definition
the mental representation that corresponds to knowledge of a category
Term
Classify
Definition
categorizing things in the world
Term
Classification
Definition
process of classifying that allows us to identify similarities and differences
Term
Consequence of categories line experiment results
Definition
Rated lines in different groups as more different in length than they really are
Term
Howard and Rothbart consequences of categories experiment
Definition
Two groups are told some good and some bad things about each group; people remember more bad things about other groups
Term
Three theories of representing categories
Definition
Classical, probabilistic, and exemplar
Term
Mental representation (classical view)
Definition
description of defining properties shared by all category members; anything with these properties is automatically considered a category member
Term
Strengths of the classical view
Definition
Most efficient and clear category boundaries
Term
Weaknesses of classical view
Definition
Hard to specify defining features (define chair example) and some things are more typical of category (represent category better than others
Term
Prototype (probabilistic view)
Definition
average representation of a concept that includes all typical properties
Term
Family resemblance (probabilistic view)
Definition
category members tend to share sets of features (each has some part of set)
Term
Weaknesses of probabilistic view
Definition
Fuzzy category boundaries and "best" exemplars are supposed to be most typical category members but aren't in all contexts
Term
Strengths of probabilistic view
Definition
Accounts for typicality effects (typical instances of a category are verified more quickly than less typical instances)
Term
Exemplar view
Definition
concept is a collection of known category members (exemplars) and representation is separate description of all exemplars; no average representation
Term
Strengths of exemplar view
Definition
Can explain why classification is influenced by context and correlations
Term
Weaknesses of exemplar view
Definition
Requires lots of memory and time to search through all stored exemplar; intuition (people are aware of having prototypes); doesn't explain how and why exemplars are grouped together into category; not very efficient
Term
Ad-hoc categories
Definition
concepts can be based on goals; how well an object fits with the goal determines categorization
Term
Theory-based view
Definition
concepts are a part of our general knowledge; our theories about the world organize concepts; knowledge tells us which features are relevant for categorizing
Term
Problem
Definition
want to attain some goal but don't know how to get there
Term
Givens
Definition
starting condition (what you know at the outset)
Term
Goal
Definition
desired outcome
Term
Means of transforming conditions
Definition
steps you can take to get from givens to goal
Term
Obstacles
Definition
situations/events preventing you from easily obtaining goal
Term
Well-defined problem
Definition
clear initial conditions, well-specified goal, set of known means of transforming conditions
Term
Ill-defined problem
Definition
one or more aspects of the problem are not completely clear
Term
Ill-defined problem
Definition
one or more aspects of the problem are not completely clear
Term
Functional fixedness
Definition
difficulty thinking about familiar objects in a non-standard way
Term
Restructuring
Definition
changing representation of problem
Term
Insight
Definition
an A-HA! moment
Term
Algorithm
Definition
systematic procedure guaranteed to lead to correct solution (time consuming, often too many possibilities) - ex. maze
Term
Heuristic
Definition
strategy to guide search so that solution is likely but not guaranteed (less time consuming)
Term
Simple Search heuristic
Definition
at each step try to find a move that takes you immediately closer to the goal
Term
Working Backwards heuristic
Definition
find the last move the directly leads to the goal and then find the move before that and so on
Term
Means-end analysis heuristic
Definition
compare your current condition with the goal, look at the difference (subgoal), then look at remaining difference and repeat
Term
Analogy
Definition
a similarity between features of two things that allows a comparison
Term
Expert
Definition
very skilled performance in a particular domain (area of knowledge)
Term
Chase and Simon chess experiment
Definition
Experts did much better on actual game positions but similar to the beginners on random positions; this showed that experts don't have a greater memory, they just use chunking
Term
Problem schema
Definition
category for type of problem; structured knowledge for identifying problems of a given type; associated procedures for solving them; allows rapid categorization of problem type (top down processing) and working forward; (novices work backward from goal, experts work forward from problem schema)
Term
Fluency
Definition
generate lots of ideas
Term
Flexibility
Definition
generate lots of different types of ideas
Term
Remote Associates Test (RAT)
Definition
tests fluency and flexibility (surprise line birthday example)
Term
Four stages of the traditional view of creativity
Definition
preparation, incubation, illumination, verification
Term
Preparation
Definition
study area and formulate problem
Term
Incubation
Definition
put unsolved problem aside; unconscious problem solving
Term
Illumination
Definition
achieve insight into problem
Term
Verification
Definition
make sure solution works; sometimes insights are wrong
Term
Normative view
Definition
how people should make decisions; rational
Term
Additive model
Definition
assign value (+,-) to each attribute; select choice with highest sum of values (class example)
Term
Elimination by aspects
Definition
pick an attribute, pick a criterion for that attribute, eliminate choices that don't meet the criterion, if choices still remain pick another attribute and repeat (restaurant example)
Term
Satisficing
Definition
pick a subset of choices and pick the one in the subset that best meets your criteria (beer example)
Term
If there is a lot of time use...
Definition
additive model
Term
If there is time pressure use...
Definition
elimination by aspects or satisficing
Term
Expected Value Theory
Definition
for each choice, you calculate its expected value (value in the long run); EV = (Pi*Vi)
Term
Framing
Definition
how a choice is presented
Term
Prospect theory
Definition
people make decisions based on utility of outcomes rather than value, framing (viewed as gain vs loss), and overestimation of rare events
Term
Which types of decision making are normative?
Definition
additive model and expected value theory
Term
Which types of decision making are non-normative?
Definition
elimination by aspects and satisficing
Term
Says that people are sensitive to how a problem is framed, that people calculate utility rather than value, and that people overestimate rare events
Definition
prospect theory
Term
A heuristic
Definition
elimination by aspects and satisficing
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