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Child Development
exam 1
121
Psychology
Undergraduate 1
03/01/2010

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Term
adaptation
Definition
tendency to respond to the demands of the environment in ways that meet one's goals
Term
orgaization
Definition
the tendency to integrate particular observations into coherent knowledge
Term
assimilation
Definition
process by which people translate icoming information into a form they can understand
Term
accomodation
Definition
process by which people adapt current knowledge structures in rsponse to new experiences
Term
equilibration
Definition
process by which people balance assimilation and accomodation to create stable understanding
Term
qualitative change
Definition
childen of different ages think qualitativey in different ways. example: children in the early stages of cognitive development conceive of morality interms off the consequences of a person's behavior, whereas children in later stages conveieve of it in terms of the person's intent
Term
broad applicability
Definition
the tpe of thinking characteristic of each stage influences children's thinking across diverse topics and contexts
Term
brief transitions
Definition
before entering a ew stage, children pass through a brief transitional period i which they fluctuate between the type of thinking characteristic of the new, more advanced stage and the type of thinkig characteristic of the old one.
Term
invariant sequence
Definition
everyone progresses through the stages in the same order and never skips a stage
Term
sensorimotor stage
Definition
birth-2 yrs. infant's intellignece deveops and is expressed through sensory and motor abilities. they use them to explore and gain info about their surroundings.
Term
preoperational stage
Definition
2-7 yrs. toddlers and preschollers become able to represent their experiences in language and mental imagery which allows them to remember their experiences for longer periods of time and to form more sophisticated concepts. they lack reasoning techiques which makes it hard for them to form certain ideas
Term
concrete operational stage
Definition
7-12 yrs. children can reason logically about concrete objects and events
Term
formal operational stage
Definition
12+ yrs. children can think deeply not only about concrete events but also about abstractions and purely hypothetical situations
Term
substage 1 (0-1month)
Definition
infants begin to modify reflexes to make them more adaptive.
Term
substage 2 (1-4months)
Definition
infant bein to organize seperate reflexes into larger behaviors, most of which are centered on their own bodies. their reflexes serve as building blocks for more complex behaviors
Term
sustage 3 (4-8months)
Definition
infants become increasingly interested in the world around them.
Term
object permanence
Definition
the knowledge that objects continue to exist even when out of sight
Term
substage 4 (8-12months)
Definition
object permanence begins to develop as they search for hidden objects rather than act as if they've vanished.
Term
substage 5(12-18months)
Definition
infants begin to atively and avidly explore the potential uses to which objects can be put
Term
substage 6 (18-24 months)
Definition
infants become able to form enduring mental representations
Term
deferred imitation
Definition
repitition of other people's behaviors minutes, hours or days after occurred.
Term
symbolic representation
Definition
the use of one objet to stand for another
Term
egocentrism
Definition
percieving the world solely from one's own point of view
Term
centration
Definition
focusing on a single,perceptually striking feature of an object or event to the exclusion of other, less striking features
Term
conservation concept
Definition
merely changing the appearance or arrangement of objects does not necessarily change their key properties, such as quantity of material
Term
weakness 1 of piaget's theory
Definition
stage model depicts children's thinking as being more consistent than it is. piaget recognized that such variability exists but wa unable to explain it successfully.
Term
weakness 2 of piaget's theory
Definition
infants and young children are more cognitively competent than piaget recognized.
Term
weakness 3 of piaget's theory
Definition
piaget's theory understates the contribution of the social world to cognitive development. a child's cognitive development reflects the cotributions of other peole, as well as of the broader culture, to a far greater degree than piaget's theory acknowledges
Term
weakness 4 of piaget's theory
Definition
piaget's theory is vague about the cognitive processes that give rise to children's thinking and about the mechanisms that produce cognitive growth. it focuses less on the processes that lead them to think in a particular way and that roduce changes in their thinking.
Term
task analysis
Definition
research technique of identifying goals, relevant information in the environment, and potential processing strategies for a problem.
Term
structure
Definition
basic organization of the cognitive system, including the main components of the system and their characteristics
Term
processes
Definition
the many specific mental activities such as rules and strategies that people use to remember and solve problems.
Term
information-processing theorists view children as...
Definition
undergoing continuous cognitive change... cognitive growth occurs constantly and in small increments
Term
problem solving
Definition
the process of attaining a goal by using a strategy to overcome an obstacle
Term
sensory memory
Definition
the fleeting retention of sights, sounds, and other sensations that have just been experienced
Term
long term memory
Definition
information retained on an endurig basis
Term
working memory
Definition
a kind of workspace in which information from sensory memory and long-term memory is brought together, attended to, and processed
Term
basic processes
Definition
the simplest and most frequently used mental activities
Term
encoding
Definition
the process of representig in memory information that draws attention
Term
utilization deficiency
Definition
the phenomenon that initial uses of strategies do not improve memory as much as later uses
Term
autobiographical memory
Definition
explicit memories of events that took place at specific times and places in an in dividual's personal past
Term
overlapping-waves theories
Definition
an information processing approach that emphasizes the variability of children's thinking
Term
intersubjectivity
Definition
the mutual understanding that people share during communication
Term
social referencing
Definition
tendency to look to social partnes for guidance about how to respond to unfamilia to threatenig events
Term
social scaffolding
Definition
a process in which ore competent people provide a temporary framework that supports children's thinking at a higher level than children could manage on their own
Term
zone of proximal development (ZPD)
Definition
range of performance between what children can do unsupported andwhat they can do with optimal support
Term
symbols
Definition
systems for representig or thoughts, feelings, and knowledge and for communicating them to others
Term
language comprehension
Definition
understanding what others say (or sign or write)
Term
language production
Definition
actually seaking (or signing or writing) to others
Term
generativity
Definition
the idea that by using the finite set of words in or vocabulay, we can put tgether an infinitenumber of sentences and exprss an infinite number of ideas
Term
phonemes
Definition
the elementary units of meaningful sound used to produce languages
Term
generativity
Definition
the idea that by using the finite set of words in or vocabulay, we can put tgether an infinitenumber of sentences and exprss an infinite number of ideas
Term
phonological development
Definition
the acquisition of knowledge about he sound system of a language
Term
morphemes
Definition
the smallest units of meaning in a language, composed of one or more phonemes
Term
semantic development
Definition
the earnig of the system for expressing meaning in a language, including word learning
Term
syntax
Definition
rules in a language that specify how words from different categories can be combined
Term
syntactic development
Definition
the learning of te syntax of a language
Term
pragmatic development
Definition
the acquisition of knowledge about how language is used
Term
metalinguistic knowledge
Definition
an understanding of the properties and function of language. an understanding of language as language.
Term
critical period
Definition
the time during which languag develops readily and after which language acquisition is much more difficult and ultimately less successful.
Term
infant-directed talk (IDT)
Definition
the distinctive mode of speech thatadults adopt when talking to babies and very young children
Term
prosody
Definition
the characteristic rhythm, tempo, cadence, melody, intonational patterns, and so forth with which a language is spoken
Term
categorical perception
Definition
the perception of speech sounds as belonging to descrete categories
Term
voice onset time (VOT)
Definition
the length of time between when air passes through the lips and when the vocal cords start vibrating
Term
reference
Definition
in language and speech, the associating of words and meaning
Term
holophrastic period
Definition
the period when children begin using the words in their small productive vocabulary one word at a time
Term
overextension
Definition
the use of a given word in broader context than is appropiate
Term
style
Definition
the strategies that young children enlist in beginning to speak
Term
referential (analytical) style
Definition
speech stategy that analyzes the speech stream into individual phonetic elements and words; the first utterances of children whoadopt this style tend to use isolated, often monosyllabic words
Term
expressive (holistic) style
Definition
children who use this speech strategy give more attention to the overall sound of language - its rhythmic and intonational patterns - than to the phonetic elements of which it is composed
Term
wait-and-see style
Definition
the children who use this speech strategy often begin to speak very late but then have a large vocab and quickly acquire more words
Term
fast mapping
Definition
the process of apidly learning a new word simply from the contrastive use of a familiar and an unfamilar word
Term
pragmatic cues
Definition
aspects of the social context used for word learning
Term
intersubjectivity
Definition
the mutual understanding that people share during communication
Term
joint attention
Definition
a process in which social partners intentionally focus on a common referent in the external environment
Term
syntactic bootstrapping
Definition
the strateg of using the grammatica structure of whole sentences to figure out meaning
Term
telegraphic speech
Definition
the term describing children's first sentence
Term
overregularlization
Definition
speech erors in which children treat irregular forms of words as if they were regular.
Term
telegraphic speech
Definition
te term describing children's first sentences that are generally two-word utterances
Term
collective monologues
Definition
young chilren's talk with one another in which the content of each child's turn has little or nothing to do with what the othe child has just said
Term
narratives
Definition
descriptions of past events that have the basic structure of a story
Term
universal grammar
Definition
a set of highly abstract, unconscious rules that are common to all languages
Term
modularity hypothesis
Definition
the idea that the human brain contains an innate, self-contained language moule tat is separate from other aspects of cognitive functioning
Term
connectionism
Definition
a type of information processing approach that emphasizes the simultaneous activity of numerous, interconnected processing units
Term
dual representation
Definition
the ida that a symbolic artifact must be mentally represented in two ways at the same ime--both as a real object and as a symbol for something other than itself
Term
concepts
Definition
general ideas or understandings that can be used to group together objects, events, qualities, or abstractions that are similar in some way
Term
category hierarchy
Definition
categories that are related by set-subset relations, such as animal/dog/poodle
Term
perceptual categorization
Definition
grouping objects together because they look similar
Term
superordinate level
Definition
the most general level within a category hierarchy such as animal in the nimal/dog/poodle example
Term
subordinate level
Definition
the most specific level in a category hierarchy such as the poodle in the animal/dog/poodle example
Term
basic level
Definition
the middle level, and often the first level learned, within a category hierarchy, such as dog in the animal/dog/poodle example
Term
naive psychology
Definition
a commonsense level of understanding of other people and oneself
Term
theory of mind
Definition
a basic understanding of how the mind works and how it influences behavior
Term
false-belief problems
Definition
tasks that tesst a child's understanding that other people will act in accord with their own beliefs even when the child knows that those beliefs are incorrect
Term
theory of mind module (TOMM)
Definition
a hypothesized brain mechanism devoted to understanding other humans
Term
autism
Definition
a syndrome that tends to produce a number of intellectual and emotional limitations, particularly in understanding and relating to other people
Term
pretend play
Definition
make believe activities in which childen create new symbolic relations (using a broom to represent a horse)
Term
object substitution
Definition
a form of pretense in which an object is used as something other than itself
Term
sociodramatic play
Definition
activities in which children enact minidramas with ther children or adults (mother comforting baby)
Term
essentialism
Definition
the view that living things have an essence inside them that makes them what they are
Term
egocentric representations
Definition
coding f spatial locations relative to one's own body, without regard to the surroundings
Term
dead reckoning
Definition
the ability to keep track continuoursly of one's location relative to the starting point and thus to go diretly back to it
Term
numerical equality
Definition
the realization that all sets of N objects have something in common
Term
subitizing
Definition
a process by which adults and children can look at a few objects and almost immediately know how many objects are present
Term
systematic desensitization
Definition
a form of therapy based on classical conditioning, in which positive responses are gradually conditioned to stimuli that initially elcit a highly negative response; especially useful in the treatment of fears and phobias
Term
behavior modification
Definition
a form of therapy based on principles of operant conditioning in which reinforcement contingenies are changed to encourage more adaptive behavior
Term
perceived self-efficacy
Definition
an individual's beliefs about how effectively he or she can control his or her own behavior, thoughts, and emotions in order to acheive a desired goal
Term
vicarious reinforcement
Definition
observing someone else receieve a reward or punishment
Term
self-socialization
Definition
te idea that chilren play a very active role in their own socialization through their activity preferenes, friendship chilces, etc.
Term
role taking
Definition
being aware of the perspective of another person, thereby better understanding that person's behavior, thoguhts,and feelings
Term
hostile attributional bis
Definition
in dodge's theory, the tendency to assume that other people's ambiguous actions stem from a hostile intent
Term
mastery orientation
Definition
a general tendency to attribute success and failure to the amount of effort expended and to persist in the face of failure
Term
helpless orientation
Definition
a general tendency to attribute success and failure to enduring aspects of the self an to give up in theface of failure
Term
entity theory
Definition
a theory that a person's level of intelligence is fized and unchangeable
Term
incremental theory
Definition
a theory that intelligence is nt fized an can grow as a function of experience
Term
ethology
Definition
the study of evolutionary bases of behavior
Term
imprinting
Definition
a form of learning in which the young of some species of new born birds and mammals beome attached to and follow adult members of the species (usually their mother)
Term
parental investment theory
Definition
a theory that stresses the evolutionary basis of many aspects of parental behavior, including the extensive invstment parents make in their offspring
Term
microsystem
Definition
bioecological theory, the immediate environment that an individual personally experiences
Term
child maltreatment
Definition
intentional abuse or neglect that endangers the well-being of anyone under the age of 18
Term
ADHD
Definition
a sndrome that involves difficulty in sustaining attention
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