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Chapter 9
The Central Nervous System
90
Physiology
Undergraduate 3
09/16/2015

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Term
Linking neurons together can create _____, which are related to feeling & emotion, & cognitive behaviors
Definition
affective behaviors
Term
spinal reflexes
Definition
reflexes that do not require integration in the brain & also occur in higher animals (humans & other vertebrates)
Term
What part of the brain contains the cerebrum?
Definition
the forebrain
Term
neural plate
Definition
a flattened region where cells that will become the nervous system lie in the very early embryo
Term
neural tube
Definition
formed when the neural plate cells have fused with each other; forms by about 23 days of human development
Term
3 obvious divisions of the brain that come from the anterior portion of the neural tube
Definition
1. forebrain
2. midbrain
3. hindbrain
Term
ventricles
Definition
hollow enlargements of the central cavity of the neural tube in the brain; formed by week 11
Term
gray matter
Definition
unmyelinated nerve cell bodies, dendrites, & axons
Term
white matter
Definition
mostly myelinated axons & very few cell bodies
Term
tracts
Definition
bundles of axons that connect different regions in the CNS
Term
In vertebrates, the brain is encased in a bony _____ (AKA _____), & the spinal cord runs through a canal in the _____
Definition
skull/cranium; vertebral column
Term
The body segmentation that is characteristic of many invertebrates can still be seen in the bony _____, which are stacked on top of one another & separated by disks of connective tissue
Definition
vertebrae
Term
meninges
Definition
the 3 layers membrane that lie between the bones & tissues of the CNS
Term
3 membranes that make up the meninges (in order from bones to neural tissue)
Definition
1. dura mater
2. arachnoid mater
3. pia mater
Term
Which membrane of the meninges is the thickest?
Definition
dura mater
Term
Which layer of the meninges is in the middle & is loosely tied to the inner membrane & leaves a subarachnoid space between the two layers?
Definition
arachnoid mater
Term
pia mater
Definition
the inner membrane of the meninges; a thin membrane that adheres to the surface of the brain & spinal cord
Term
cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
Definition
a salty solution that is continuously secreted by the choroid plexus (a specialized region on the walls of the ventricles)
Term
From the ventricles, CSF flows into the _____ between the pia mater & the arachnoid membrane, surrounding the entire brain & spinal cord in fluid
Definition
subarachnoid space
Term
To achieve protection, most of the 400 miles of brain capillaries create a functional _____
Definition
blood brain barrier
Term
What are some symptoms of hypoglycemia (occurs when homeostasis fails)?
Definition
confusion, unconsciousness, eventually death
Term
Each spinal region is subdivided into segments, & each segment gives rise to a bilateral pair of _____
Definition
spinal nerves
Term
roots
Definition
2 branches into which a spinal nerve divides just before joining the spinal cord
Term
dorsal root
Definition
specialized to carry incoming sensory information; each spinal nerve has one
Term
dorsal root ganglia
Definition
swellings found on the dorsal roots just before they enter the cord; contains the cell bodies of sensory neurons
Term
ventral root
Definition
carries information from the CNS to the muscles & glands
Term
dorsal horns
Definition
part of the gray matter where sensory fibers from the dorsal roots synapse with interneurons
Term
ventral horns
Definition
part of the gray matter that contains cell bodies of motor neurons that carry efferent signals to muscles & glands
Term
White matter can be divided into a number of _____ composed of tracts of axons that transfer information up & down the spinal cord
Definition
columns
Term
ascending tracts
Definition
take sensory information to the brain
Term
descending tracts
Definition
carry mostly efferent signals from the brain to the spinal cord
Term
propriospinal tracts
Definition
tracts that remain within the spinal cord
Term
What is the oldest & most primitive region of the brain & consists of structures that derive from the embryonic midbrain & hindbrain?
Definition
the brain stem
Term
Where do 11 of the 12 cranial nerves originate?
Definition
along the brain stem
Term
reticular formation
Definition
a diffuse collection of neurons that extends throughout the brain stem; many nuclei are associated with the reticular formation
Term
medulla oblongata (AKA the medulla)
Definition
the transition from the spinal cord to the brain proper
Term
2 types of tracts found in the white matter of the medulla
Definition
1. somatosensory tracts (ascending; bring sensory information to the brain)
2. corticospinal tracts (descending; convey information from the cerebrum to the spinal cord)
Term
pyramids
Definition
a region of the medulla where about 90% of corticospinal tracts cross the midline to the opposite side of the body
Term
pons (location)
Definition
a bulbous protrusion on the ventral side of the brain stem above the medulla & below the midbrain
Term
midbrain (AKA mesencephalon) (location)
Definition
third region of the brain stem; a relatively small area that lies between the lower brain stem & the diencephalon
Term
What is the second largest structure in the brain?
Definition
cerebellum
Term
diencephalon (AKA "between-brain") (location)
Definition
between the brain stem & the cerebrum
Term
What is most of the diencephalon occupied by?
Definition
many small nuclei that make up the thalamus
Term
hypothalamus (location)
Definition
beneath the thalamus
Term
corpus callosum
Definition
where the two hemispheres are primarily connected
Term
cerebral cortex (location)
Definition
the outer layer of the cerebrum; only a few millimeters thick
Term
The second region of cerebral gray matter consists of the _____
Definition
basal ganglia
Term
limbic system (location)
Definition
the third region of the cerebrum; surrounds the brain stem
Term
3 major areas of the limbic system
Definition
1. amygdala (linked to emotion & memory)
2. cingulate gyrus (linked to emotion & memory)
3. hippocampus (associated with learning & memory)
Term
3 systems that influence output by motor systems of the body
Definition
1. sensory system (monitors the internal & external environments & initiates reflex responses)
2. cognitive system (resides in the cerebral cortex & is able to initiate voluntary responses)
3. behavioral state system (resides in the brain & governs sleep-wake cycles & other intrinsic behavior)
Term
What concept does cerebral lateralization of function (AKA cerebral dominance) give rise to?
Definition
left brain-right brain dominance
Term
3 specializations of the cortex from a functional viewpoint
Definition
1. sensory areas (receive sensory input & translate it into perception)
2. motor areas (direct skeletal muscle movement)
3. association areas (integrate information from sensory & motor areas & can direct voluntary behaviors)
Term
3 pathways that terminate in the primary somatic sensory cortex in the parietal lobe
Definition
1. skin
2. musculoskeletal
3. viscera
Term
visual cortex (location & function)
Definition
occipital lobe; receives information from the eyes
Term
auditory cortex (location & function)
Definition
temporal lobe; receives information from ears
Term
olfactory cortex (location & function)
Definition
a small region in the temporal lobe; receives input from chemoreceptors in the nose
Term
gustatory cortex (location & function)
Definition
deeper in the brain near the edge of the frontal lobe; receives sensory information from the taste buds
Term
3 major types of motor output
Definition
1. skeletal muscle movement (controlled by the somatic motor division)
2. neuroendocrine signals (neurohormones secreted into the blood by neurons located primarily in the hypothalamus & adrenal medulla)
3. visceral responses (actions of smooth & cardiac muscle or endocrine & exocrine glands)
Term
2 places where voluntary movements that are initiated by the cognitive system originate
Definition
1. primary motor cortex
2. motor association area in the frontal lobes of the cerebrum
Term
What type of neurons originate in the reticular formation in the brain stem & project their axons to large areas of the brain?
Definition
diffuse modulatory systems
Term
consciousness
Definition
the body's state of arousal or awareness of self & environment
Term
reticular activating system
Definition
a diffuse collection of neurons in the reticular formation that play an essential role in keeping the "conscious brain" awake
Term
electroencephalography
Definition
how the measurement of brain activity is recorded
Term
sleep
Definition
an easily reversible state of inactivity characterized by lack of interaction with the external environment; the major rest period marked in humans
Term
How is slow-wave sleep (deep sleep) (non-REM sleep)indicated on an EEG?
Definition
delta waves (high amplitude, low-frequency waves of long duration that sweep across the cerebral cortex)
Term
How is rapid eye movement (REM) sleep indicated on an EEG?
Definition
it has a pattern closer to that of an awake person with low-amplitude, high-frequency waves
Term
suprachiasmatic nucleus
Definition
networks of neurons in the hypothalamus where the primary "clock" resides along with secondary clocks that influence the behavior of different tissues
Term
motivation
Definition
internal signals that shape voluntary behaviors
Term
3 properties of drives (motivational states)
Definition
1. they create an increased state of CNS arousal or alertness
2. they create goal-oriented behavior
3. they are capable of coordinating disparate behaviors to achieve their goal
Term
satiety
Definition
the level of satisfaction that causes a motivated behavior to stop when it is reached; motivated behaviors may however continue despite feeling satiated
Term
moods
Definition
similar to emotions but are longer-lasting, relatively stable subjective feelings related to one's sense of well-being
Term
About what percent of people in the US are affected by depression?
Definition
10%
Term
associative learning
Definition
when two stimuli are associated with each other, such as Pavlov's classic experiment in which he simultaneously presented dogs with food & rang a bell
Term
nonassociative learning
Definition
a change in behavior that takes place after repeated exposure to a single stimulus
Term
habituation
Definition
when an animal shows a decreased response to an irrelevant stimulus that is repeated over & over
Term
What is the opposite of sensitization?
Definition
the opposite of habituation; combined with habituation to help increase an organism's chances for survival
Term
memory
Definition
the ability to retain & recall information
Term
memory traces
Definition
pathways in which memories are stored throughout the cerebral cortex
Term
anterograde amnesia
Definition
the inability to remember newly acquired information
Term
short-term memory
Definition
a limited storage area that can hold only about 7 to 12 pieces of information at a time; where a stimulus first goes when it comes into the CNS
Term
What type of memory is associated with working memory? Where is it processed?
Definition
a special form of short-term memory processed in the prefrontal lobes
Term
long-term memory
Definition
the storage area capable of holding vast amounts of information
Term
consolidation
Definition
the processing of information that converts short-term memory into long-term memory
Term
reflexive (implicit) memory (definition & what parts of the brain are involved)
Definition
automatic & does not require conscious processes for either creation or recall; involves the amygdala & the cerebellum
Term
Does declarative (explicit) memory require conscious attention for its recall?
Definition
yes!
Term
What disease is a progressive neurodegenerative disease of cognitive impairment that accounts for about half the cases of dementia in the elderly?
Definition
Alzheimer's disease
Term
2 regions of the cerebral cortex that deal with integration of spoken language
Definition
1. Wernicke's area (at the junction of the parietal, temporal, & occipital lobes)
2. Broca's area (in the posterior part of the frontal lobe, close to the motor cortex)
Term
receptive aphasia
Definition
the condition where the person is unable to understand sensory input to Wernicke's area
Term
Damage to Broca's area causes an _____ (Broca aphasia)
Definition
expressive aphasia
Term
Does schizophrenia have a genetic & environmental basis?
Definition
yes!
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