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Chapter 7
Learning
74
Psychology
Undergraduate 1
02/21/2013

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Term
Learning
Definition
a relatively permanent change in an organism's behavior behavior due to experience.

Types of learning:
1. Classical conditioning
2. Operant conditioning
3. Observational learning
Term
Associative learning
Definition
learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning).

i.e. Seals: clap and bark to get food.
Term
Classical conditioning
Definition
a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events.
Term
Behaviorism
Definition
the view that psychology 1) should be an objective science that 2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes.

- Pavlov's work laid the foundation for John B. Watson's behaviorism movement.
Term
Neutral stimulus (NS)
Definition
in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response conditioning.
Term
Unconditioned stimulus (US)
Definition
in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally - naturally and automatically - triggers a response.

i.e. The food.
Term
Conditioned response (CR)
Definition
in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS).

i.e. Learned response: salivation.
Term
Conditioned stimulus (CS)
Definition
in classical conditioning, a previously neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response.

i.e. Tone stimulus that triggers the conditional salivation.
Term
Acquisition
Definition
in classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response.
Term
Higher-order conditioning
Definition
a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus.

i.e. an animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone. (Also called second-order conditioning).
Term
Extinction
Definition
the diminishing of a conditioned response.
• Classical conditioning: when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS).
• Operant conditioning: when a response is no longer reinforced.
Term
Spontaneous recovery
Definition
the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response → extinction suppresses the CR rather than eliminate it.
Term
Generalization
Definition
the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses.

i.e. Toddlers taught to fear moving cars also become afraid of moving trucks.
Term
Discrimination
Definition
in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other irrelevant stimuli.
Term
Respondent behavior
Definition
behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus.

(i.e. salivating to the tone)
Term
Operant conditioning
Definition
a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher --> We learn to associate a response and its consequence.
Term
Law of effect
Definition
E.L. Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely.
Term
Operant chamber
Definition
in operant conditioning research, a chamber (AKA a Skinner box) containing a bar or key than an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal's rate of bar pressing or key pecking.
Term
Shaping
Definition
an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior.
Term
Reinforcer
Definition
in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows.

• A reinforcer can be a tangible reward, it may be praise/attention, or it may be an activity.
Term
Positive reinforcement
Definition
increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthen the response.
Term
Negative reinforcement
Definition
increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note: NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT IS NOT PUNISHMENT).
Term
Primary reinforcer
Definition
an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need.

i.e. Getting food when hungry.
Term
Conditioned reinforcer
Definition
a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as secondary reinforcer.
Term
Continuous reinforcement
Definition
reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs.
Term
Partial (intermittent) reinforcement
Definition
reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement.

i.e. Gamblers.
Term
Fixed-ratio schedule
Definition
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses.

i.e. Coffee shops's loyalty cards --> free drink after 10 purchases.
Term
Variable-ratio schedule
Definition
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses.

i.e. Slot-machine players.

• Produces high raters of responding, because reinforcers increase as the number of responses increase.
Term
Fixed-interval schedule
Definition
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed.

i.e. checking more frequently as the time to watch the Bachelor approaches.
Term
Variable-interval schedule
Definition
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals.

• Slow responses because there is no knowing when the waiting will be over.
Term
Cognitive map
Definition
a mental representation of the layout of one's environment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it.
Term
Latent learning
Definition
learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it.
Term
Observational learning
Definition
learning by observing others.
Term
Modeling
Definition
the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior.
Term
Mirror neurons
Definition
frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain's mirroring of another's action may enable imitation and empathy.

• Our brain’s mirror neurons underlie our intensely social nature.
Term
Prosocial behavior
Definition
positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior.
Term
How do we learn, according to John Locke and Aristotle?
Definition
We learn by association and these learned associations feed our habitual behaviors, because the behaviors become associated with the context, our next experience of the context triggers our habitual response.
Term
Conditioning
Definition
the process of learning associations.
Term
Pavlov's experiment
Definition
He discovered that dogs learned to associate the ringing of a bell or buzzer, even a light, to receiving food, so by merely hearing the bell/buzzer or seeing the light, they begin to salivate.
Term
Unconditioned response (UR)
Definition
in classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US).

i.e. Salivation in response to food in the mouth.
Term
Pavlov's five major conditioning process
Definition
1. Spontaneous recovery
2. Acquisition
3. Generalization
4. Extinction
5. Discrimination
Term
How is classical conditioning biologically adaptive?
Definition
It helps humans and other animals prepare for good/bad events. Conditioning helps an animal survive and reproduce by responding to cues that help it avoid dangers and produce offsprings.

i.e. Male quail + light, sexy female quail comes out --> Male quail associates light with sexy female quail = sexually aroused male quails at the mere sight of the light.
Term
Pavlov and Watson believed that the laws of learnings were essentially similar in all animals, but what did Gregory Kimble discover that disproves that?
Definition
Kimble realized that an animal's capacity for conditioning is constrained by its biology; meaning, that each species is predisposed to learn associations that enhance its survive/adapt → natural selection favors traits that aid survival.
Term
Scientists give rats food with a specific flavor which makes them sick several hours later, which they then avoided from then on, this experiment disproved what notion?
Definition
This appeared to violate the notion that for conditioning to occur, the unconditioned stimulus MUST immediately follow the conditioned stimulus.
Term
The sick rats developed an aversion to certain tastes, but not to sights or sounds, what notion did this result contradict?
Definition
This contradicted the behaviorists' idea that any perceivable stimulus could serve as a conditioned stimuli.
Term
How does learning aid organisms?
Definition
Learning enables organisms to adapt to their environment and increases their chance of survival.
Term
Pavlov's legacy
Definition
1. Classical conditioning is one way virtually all organisms learn to adapt.
2. Learning can be studied objectively.
Term
Little Albert
Definition
John Watson's experiment: He made a small child afraid of a white rat by also creating an extremely loud sound every time the rat was introduced.
• Conclusion: Human emotions and behaviors, though biologically influenced, are mainly a bundle of conditioned responses.
Term
What is the key difference between classical and operant conditioning?
Definition
Classical conditioning forms associations between stimuli, whereas in operant conditioning, the organism associates their OWN actions with consequences.
Term
Successive approximations
Definition
In operant conditioning, you reward responses that are ever-closer to the final desired behavior, while ignoring all other responses.
Term
What if the rat presses the bar in the Skinner box while you are distracted, and you delay the reinforcer?
Definition
If the delay lasts longer than 30 seconds, the rat will not learn to press the bar, instead you will be reinforcing other incidental behaviors (sniffing and moving), which intervened after the bar press.
Term
What are the upsides and downsides of continuous reinforcement?
Definition
Learning occurs rapidly with continuous reinforcement, but extinction occurs rapidly when reinforcement stops, the behavior soon stops too.
Term
Punishment
Definition
any consequence that DECREASES the frequency of a preceding behavior.

PUNISHMENT TELL YOU WHAT NOT TO DO, BUT REINFORCEMENT TELLS YOU WHAT TO DO.
Term
Positive punishment
Definition
ADMINISTER an aversive stimulus.

i.e. spanking; receiving a parking ticket.
Term
Negative punishment
Definition
WITHDRAW a desirable stimulus.

i.e. time-out from privileges; revoked driver's license.
Term
What are the drawbacks of physically punishing children?
Definition
1. Behavior is suppressed, not forgotten.
2. Teaches discrimination (not what you think it means).
3. Teaches fear.
4. Increases aggressiveness by modeling aggression as a way to cope with problems.
Term
When does operant conditioning work best?
Definition
When it builds on an animal's natural behavior tendencies.
Term
What is the basic rule of shaping?
Definition
Notice people doing something right and affirm then for it!
Term
Classical vs. Operant: Response
Definition
1. Classical: Involuntary, automatic.
2. Voluntary, operates on environment.
Term
Classical vs. Operant: Acquisition
Definition
1. Classical: associating events: Neutral stimulus is paired with unconditioned stimulus, which becomes a conditioned stimulus.
2. Operant: associating response with consequence (reinforcer or punisher).
Term
Classical vs. Operant: Extinction
Definition
1. Classical: Conditioned response decreases when conditioned stimulus is presented alone.
2. Operant: Responding decreases when reinforcement stops.
Term
Classical vs. Operant: Spontaneous Recovery
Definition
1. Classical: The reappearance, after a rest period, of an extinguished conditioned response.
2. Operant: Same thing as classical.
Term
Classical vs. Operant: Generalization
Definition
1. Classical: the tendency to respond to stimuli similar to the CS.
2. Operant: same.
Term
Classical vs. Operant: Discrimination
Definition
1. Classical: the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and irrelevant stimuli.
2. Operant: Organisms learns that certain responses, but not others, will be reinforced.
Term
Classical vs. Operant: Cognitive Processes
Definition
1. Classical: Organisms develop expectations that the conditioned stimulus signals the arrival of unconditioned stimulus.
2. Operant: Organisms develop expectation that a response will be reinforced/punished; they also exhibit latent learning without reinforcement.
Term
Classical vs. Operant: Biological Predispositions
Definition
1. Classical: Natural predispositions constrain what stimuli and responses can easily be associated.
2. Operant: Organisms best learn behaviors similar to their natural behaviors; unnatural behaviors instinctively drift back toward natural ones.
Term
What do we learn by watching others?
Definition
We learn to anticipate a behavior's consequences → we are likely to model those we perceive to ourselves, are successful, or admirable.
Term
Prosocial Observation Learning
Definition
Models that are helpful and positive; models are most effective when their actions and words are consistent.
Term
Antisocial Observation Learning
Definition
Observational learning may have antisocial effect, which helps us understand why abusive parents might have aggressive children.
Term
What is a powerful source of observational learning?
Definition
Television.
Term
Violence-viewing effect
Definition
Violence viewing leads to violent behavior: correlation NOT causation.

1. Children imitate what they see on TV.
2. Prolonged exposure desensitizes viewers.
Term
Albert Bandura
Definition
Bobo Doll Experiment: Children watched a video of a women beating up a Bobo doll and then were placed into a room filled with toys, including a Bobo doll. The children then preceded to imitate the behavior depicted on the video, their behavior changed without it being rewarded or punished.
Term
Ratio
Definition
a certain number of correct responses.
Term
Interval
Definition
the amount of time that has gone by.
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