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Chapter 3: The Molecules of Cells
Boook: Biology - Concepts & Connections
117
Biology
10th Grade
10/18/2009

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Term
what is special about compounds containing carbon?
Definition
they are the most common structures in living organisms
Term
why is carbon "tetravalent"?
Definition
because it makes four bonds to other atoms
Term
what charge does a hydrocarbon (hint: Hydrogen & Carbon) molecule have?
Definition
hydrocarbons are generally non-polar molecules b/c of C-H bonds (do not have a large electronegativity difference)
Term
PREFIXES
Definition
(# of carbons in the longest chain) 1. METH; 2. ETH; 3. PROP; 4. BUT; 5. PENT; 6. HEX; 7. HEPT; 8. OCT; 9. NON; 10. DEC
Term
SUFFIXES
Definition
(what type of bond) ANE; single bond. ENE; double bond. YNE; triple bond
Term
what is important about isomers? what is the result of this?
Definition
molecules have the same chemical formula but different structure. the difference in shape & structure results in unique properties
Term
how to name an isomer:
Definition
1. attached to carbon # (2); 2. only one carbon attached (methyl); 3. longest carbon chain (but); 4. types of bonds (ane) -- 2 METHYL BUTANE
Term
how to name double/triple bonds:
Definition
1. find double bond on carbon number (2); 2. longest chain of carbons (5 - pent); 3. double bond (-ene) -- 2 PENTENE
Term
how to name double/triple bonds AND hanging carbons:
Definition
1. count which carbon the double bond is on (1); 2. first name hanging carbon off of main chain & how many are hanging off (4 methyl); 3. name double bond on carbon 1 in a 5 carbon chain (1 pentene) -- 4 METHYL 1 PENTENE
Term
functional groups (def)
Definition
the groups of atom that usually participate in chemical reactions in an organic molecule
Term
why are the five functional groups polar?
Definition
b/c their oxygen or nitrogen atoms are highly electronegative
Term
what does the polarity of the 5 funct'l groups have to do with hydrophilic?
Definition
polarity tends to make compounds containing these groups hydrophilic (water loving, & therefore soluble)
Term
hydroxyl group (3)
Definition
1; -OH; 2. organic compounds containing hydroxyl groups are called alcohols; 3. also makes stuff very soluble b/c it forms hydrogen bonds with water
Term
carbonyl group (2)
Definition
1. --C=O; 2. sugars usually contain 1 carbonyl group and many hydroxyl groups
Term
aldehyde vs. ketone (3)
Definition
1. types in carbonyl groups; 2. Aldehyde - At end; 3. Ketone - Keep center
Term
carboxyl group (3)
Definition
1. -COOH aka OH-C=O; 2. can only be on the end of a carbon b/c it has 3 atoms; 3. makes substance acidic
Term
carboxylic acid (OH-C=O) vs. ionized (O--C=O) (3)
Definition
1. types in carboxyl groups; 2. carboxylic acid acts as acid b/c it contributes H+ to a solution; 3. ionized is after it gives away H+ to a solution so it is left with O-
Term
amino group
Definition
1. -NH2 aka H-N-H; 2. it makes substance basic
Term
amine (H-N-H) vs. ionized (all come off of N: H-N-H+-N) (2)
Definition
1. amine acts as a base by taking in H+ ions from a solution; 2. ionized is when the base has taken in a H+ ion
Term
phosphate group (2) & what is it often involved in?
Definition
1. -OPO32- aka these all coming off of P: O-, =O, O, O; 2. compounds w/ phosphate are called organic phosphates; 3. often involved in energy transfers (ATP)
Term
macromolecules
Definition
large biological molecules
Term
4 main macromolecules
Definition
1. carbohydrates; 2. lipids; 3. proteins; 4. nucleic acids
Term
polymer
Definition
a large molecule consisting of many identical/similar molecular units strung together
Term
monomer
Definition
the units that serve as the building blocks of polymers. only 3/4 macromolecules are made of monomers (carbs, proteins & nucleic acids)
Term
what joins monomers to form polymers?
Definition
chemical reactions
Term
dehydration reaction (aka condensation reaction)
Definition
a reaction that removes a molecule of water to link monomers together w/ covalent bonds
Term
1. why are dehydration reactions called dehydration reactions? 2. why are they called condensation? 3. why are hydrolysis reactions called hydrolysis?
Definition
1. b/c the molecules lose water; 2. b/c the solution they are in gains water; 3. b/c they break polymers into monomers by adding water
Term
hydrolysis
Definition
to break down w/ water & cells break  bonds b/w monomers by adding water to them (end with several smaller monomers)
Term
monosaccharides
Definition
carbohydrate monomers (main fuel for cellular work)
Term
what is a hydrated carbon?
Definition
a carbohydrate
Term
what is the general molecular formula for monomers?
Definition
Cn(H20)n
Term
three examples of monosaccharides
Definition
1. glucose ("blood sugar"); 2. galactose (a sugar in milk & yogurt; 3. fructose (sugar in honey)
Term
do the 3 examples of monosaccharides have the same formula?
Definition
yes, with different arrangements in atoms
Term
disaccharide
Definition
2 monosaccharides linked together to form a "double" sugar
Term
three examples of dissacharides ("SL*M")
Definition
1. sucrose (table sugar: glucose + fructose); 2. lactose (sugar in milk: glucose + galactose); 3. maltose (product of starch digestion: glucose + glucose)
Term
why are all sugars very soluble in water?
Definition
b/c of their many hydroxyl groups (ex. C6H12O6 [glucose, fructose, galactose equation])
Term
end result in disaccharides we explored:
Definition
loss of a hydrogen atom from 1 of the monos's & a hydroxyl group from the other
Term
what is the most impt source of energy for many cells?
Definition
sugarrr !
Term
what provides the bulk of calories in most idets?
Definition
carbbbss !
Term
what are 2 common carbs found in plants?
Definition
starch & cellulose
Term
what are the monomers of starch & cellulose?
Definition
glucose
Term
what are the two types of enzymes found in glucose?
Definition
amylose and amylopectin
Term
how does amylopectin differ from amylose?
Definition
amylopectin is highly branched while amylose has unbranched chains
Term
why are starches insoluble?
Definition
b/c they have a large molecule size
Term
3 major sources of starch in human diet:
Definition
rice, wheat & corn
Term
what does the hydrolysis of starch and what does this thing break down?
Definition
amylases (NOT a carb). it breaks down the amylose in starch
Term
what is the monomer in cellulose?
Definition
glucose
Term
what is the result of cellulose & starch having no side chains?
Definition
a series of stiff, elongated fibrils (perfect for building cell walls of plants)
Term
how do animals store glycogen?
Definition
by polymerizing glucose to form glycogen
Term
what is the diff b/w the structure of amylopectin & glycogen?
Definition
branches in glycogen tend to be shorter & more frequent
Term
lipids
Definition
hydrophobic molecules that are insoluble in aqueous solutions & soluble in organic solvents
Term
why are lipids nonpolar hydrophobic?
Definition
b/c they are carbon & hydrogen predominate & have very little oxygens
Term
three major functions of lipids:
Definition
1. serve as structural components of biological membranes; 2. provide energy reserves, predominantly as triacylglycerols; 3. lipids & lipid derivatives serve as vitamins & hormones
Term
types of lipids:
Definition
fats, phopholipids, waxes & steroids
Term
what is another name for fats?
Definition
triacylglycerides or triglycerides
Term
what are fats composed of?
Definition
fatty acids & glycerol
Term
what reactino forms fats?
Definition
dehydration synthesis reactions
Term
what two major roles do fatty acids fill in th body?
Definition
1. components of membranes; 2. the major components of stored lipids
Term
what is the general mformula for fats?
Definition
(CH2)n
Term
what are the elements in fats?
Definition
carbon & hydrogen are predominate (very little oxygen); on 1 side is a carboxylic acid
Term
difference in bonds b/w saturated fats & unsaturated fats
Definition
saturated fats have no double bonds b/w carbons, while unsaturated fats include many double bonds b/w carbons
Term
examples of sat. fats solid at room temp
Definition
butter & lard
Term
examples of unsat. fats liquid at room temp
Definition
olive oil & corn oil
Term
in what state are sat. fatty acids of <8 carbon atoms?
Definition
liquid at physiological temp
Term
in what state are sat. fatty acids of 10+ carbon atoms?
Definition
solid
Term
why does too much sat. fat create a risk of heart disease?
Definition
b/c the sat. fats line the walls of arteries & occlude (eventually stop) blood flow
Term
what is done to the double bonds in hydrogenation?
Definition
they are removed & the mol's become more solid at room temp (almost like making it unsat to sat, but not quite)
Term
what are the essential fatty acid? & why?
Definition
linoleic acid & linolenic acid b/c they cannot be synthesized & must be provided in the diet
Term
where do humans acquire the essential fatty acids & why?
Definition
by eating animals that have consumed plants that contains these acids or eating the plants themselves b/c they are capable of synthesizing linoleic & linolenic acids
Term
phospholids
Definition
a major component of cell membranes
Term
what three things are phospholipids composed of?
Definition
a glycerol molecule; two fatty acids; a phophate group
Term
what is the name of the fatty acids in a phospholipid & the name of phosphate portion?
Definition
1. tails (hydrophobic); 2. head (hydrophilic)
Term
waxes
Definition
effective hydrophobic coatings formed by many organisms to ward off water
Term
what do waxes consist of ?
Definition
fatty acid linked to an alcohol
Term
steroids
Definition
lipids with backbones bent into rings
Term
what steroid is formed by animals?
Definition
cholesterol
Term
name two functions that cholesterol has:
Definition
1. functions in the digestion of fats; 2. starting material for the synthesis of female & male sex hormones
Term
anabolic steroids
Definition
variants of the male hormone (testosterone) which causes the buildup of muscle & bone mass during puberty in men
Term
5 medical problems w/ anabolic steroids (Trees Live By Many Animals):
Definition
1. testicular atrophy (testicles don't grow as much as they should), liver cancer, breast development in males, masculinization of females, antisocial behavior
Term
8 classes of proteins (& example): *stacey [can] see [outside] tremendous [hairy] happy [indescribable] realistic [cunning] eagles  [about to] come [meters] down [alas]*
Definition
1. structural (collagen); 2. storage (ovalbumin); 3. transport (hemoglobin); 4. hormonal (insulin); 5. receptor (in cell membrane); 6. enzymes (amylose); 7. contractile (myosin in muscles); 8. defensive (antibodies)
Term
how many common naturally-occuring amino acids are there?
Definition
20
Term
what determines the specific properties of amino acids?
Definition
the R groups
Term
3 main groups of amino acids:
Definition
1. nonpolar & hydrophobic; 2. polar & hydrophilic; 3. charged: acidic (if there's a carboxyl group in R group) or basic (if there's an amio group in R group)
Term
name of the link b/w amino acids
Definition
peptide bond aka covalent bond
Term
what is the resulting structure when 2 amino acids link together?
Definition
dipeptide
Term
how many levels of substructure determine the shape of a protein?
Definition
four
Term
primary substructure 
Definition
1. strongest structure of all four; 2. sequence of amino acids; 3. held together by peptide bonds
Term
secondary substructure (2)
Definition
1. can be helical or pleated shape; 2. held by regular hydrogen bonds b/w carbonyl O and amino H on nonadjacent amino acids
Term
tertiary substructure
Definition
1. overall shape of an individual protein; 2. usually called globular (combination of helices & pleats) or fibrous (entirely pleated; 4. most proteins are globular; 5. held together by covalent (S-S) bonds, ionic bonds, hydrogen bonds, & hydrophobic bonds (interactions)
Term
quaternary substructure
Definition
1. a protein w/ multiple chains; 2. all the same bonds from tertiary are involved here
Term
what is sig. about a protein's shape?
Definition
it determines its function & allows it to recognize other molecules
Term
denaturation
Definition
chemical change resulting in change of chemical properties where polypeptide chains lose their shape & thusly, their function
Term
what does denaturation have to do with a fever?
Definition
b/c if your fever gets too high, proteins in your brain could denature
Term
what 3 things causes denaturation?
Definition
heat, changes in pH and change in salt concentration
Term
nucleic acids
Definition
polymers that can serve as the blue-print for proteins
Term
what are the sections of DNA molecules called? & what are they the blueprints for?
Definition
1. genes; 2. amino acid sequences in proteins (primary substructure)
Term
how is DNA transmitted through parents -> children?
Definition
through gametes (ova & sperm cells)
Term
what is the monomer of nucleic acids?
Definition
a nucleotide
Term
three parts a nucleotide is made up of:
Definition
1. sugar; 2. phosphate; 3. nitrogenous base (5 types)
Term
RNA consists of.... while DNA consists of...
Definition
1. a single polynucleotide strand; 2. a double helix & two chains are held together by hydrogen bonds b/w the paired bases
Term
polynucleotide & how it is bonded
Definition
1. composed of nucleotide monomers formed by dehydrated reaction; 2. phosphate group of one nucleotide bonds to the sugar of the next phosphate which results in repeating sugar phosphate backbone in polymer
Term
which info programs the primary structure of a protein?
Definition
the specific sequences of nucelotiedes in a gene b/c they are the blueprints for proteins
Term
in nucleic acids, which process creates polymers from the monomers? & how?
Definition
1. dehydration synthesis; 2. a phosphate from one nucleotide bonds to the sugar of another nucleotide
Term
what is glycogen?
Definition
a storage polysaccharide in animals for excess glucose (sugar). most are as granules in liver & muscle cells
Term
cellulose
Definition
most abundant organic compounds on earth that serves as structural compounds in plants. they are joined by hydrogen bonds, forming a part of a fabril
Term
what are the two types of sugar that can be in nucleotides?
Definition
ribose or deoxyribose
Term
what are the 5 types of nitrogenous bases (Under The Car Are Gears)?
Definition
adenine, cytosine, guanine, thymine or uracil
Term
what do DNA molecules contain?
Definition
many genes
Term
what is the molecular formula for the three monosacchardies studied?
Definition
C6H1206
Term
why can starch store glucose?
Definition
b/c of it is insoluble in water & has a large molecule size
Term
what elements are lipids mostly made of?
Definition
carbons & hydrogens linked by nonpolar covalent bonds
Term
branches in starch vs. glycogen vs. cellulose
Definition
starch (helical shape): may be branches or unbranched; glycogen : more highly branched than starch; cellulose (rod shape, cellulose molecules parallel to each other) : unbranched
Term
polypeptide
Definition
a chain of amino acids
Term
amines
Definition
organic compounds w/ an amino group
Term
astherosclerosis
Definition
plaques build up within the wall of blood vessels, reducing blood flow
Term
plaque
Definition
lipid-containing deposits
Term
nitrogenous base
Definition
an organic molecule that is a base containing the element nitrogen
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