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CAS
orthopeadics, repro, neuro etc
586
Veterinary Medicine
Undergraduate 4
04/13/2016

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Cards

Term
callus formation?
Definition
haematoma formation
granulation tissue
CT
fibrocartlilage mineralisation
cancellous bone
haversion remodeling
- allows a # to be healed in a matter of weeks
Term
methods of fixation in orthopedics
Definition
external coaptation - eg casts and babdages
External skeletal fixator (ESF)
intamedullary pins
wire
Pins and tension bands
Plates and screws
Term
What is an ESF in orthopedics?
Definition
goes across fractures - diaphyseal fractures and articular immobilastion
Has a bar, fixation pin and clamps

They can be uni or bilateral and have pins just up one side (uniplanar) or bi planar
Term
Intramedullary pins have a resistance against what force?
Never used in which bone?
Definition
bending
Never used in the radius
Term
Interlocking nails - good at resisting which forces?
Definition
axial load/rotation
Term
pins and tension bands for hat #s?
Definition
avulsion fractures
Term
Pins - types? uses?
Definition
Cross pins or rush pins
Cross pins - go across a #
Rush pins - bend and go round to make contact with the end of the bone
Term
3 ways of applying bone plates
Definition
compression
Neutralisation
Bridging
Term
complications in fracture management and repair?
Definition
Mal union
non union
delayed union
implant failure
osteomyelitis
Term
what is synovial fluid?
Definition
ultrafiltrate of the blood
for nourishment and lubrication of cartilage in joints
Term
How would you diagnose joint disease?
Definition
pain
reduction in movement
lameness
crepitus
effusion
Term
categorisation of arthritis?
Definition
two types - degenerative - OA and traumatic arthritis
- Inflammatory - immune mediated, infection or miscellaneous
Term
What is OA?
Definition
osteoarthirtis is a degenerative joint codition in which the cartilage degeneration, peri-articular new bone and low grade synovial inflammation
Term
aetiology of OA?
Definition
Primary - unknown
Secondary - instability
Inflammation
developmental
iatrogenic
Term
Pathogenesis of OA?
Definition
inflammatory mediators from the synovial imflammation lead to a thickening in the synovium which leads to the cartilage producing proteases which disolve cartilage - so the balance between building and breaking down of cartilage is unbalance
Which can mean erosion and fissues more easily formed
Term
bacterial infectious arthritis?
Definition
aka septic arthirits
direct or indirect
Direct - penetration
Indirect - heamatogenous spread from another septic focus
Term
Pathogenesis of septic arthritis?
Definition
massive imflammatory reaction leading to rapid cartilage destruction
Term
dx of septic arthritis?
Definition
hx, clinical signs, arthorcentesis - increased volume and reduced viscosity
Term
Treatment of septic arthritis?
Definition
Antibiotics and flushing
Term
Management overall of arthritis
Definition
medical or surgical
Term
Medical management of OA?
Definition
weight control - obesity is a big risk factor
nutritional supplements like omega FAs
Execise management
Pain management - NSAIDS or corticosteroids - last resort
Term
carpal laxity in pups - history related often?
Treatment?
Definition
Often had poor nutrition or period of rest
Treat with nutrition
Term
what group of developmental issues cause elbow dyplasia?
Definition
fractured coronoid process
Ununited aconeal process
OCD of the medial humeral condyle
Term
pathophysiology of fractured coronoid process? FCP
Definition
abraisons to the medial humeral condyle
Term
Diagnosis of FCP?
Definition
xray
CT
arthroscopy
Term
Treatment of FCP?
Definition
medical or surgical
Medical - is as for OA - nutrition etc
Surgery - fragment removal or ulna ostectomy
Term
OCD of the medial humeral condyle? - What is osteochondrosis?
Definition
Osteochondrosis is failure of endochodral osification so you get an overgrowth in articular cartilage
- usually due to ishceamic damage or genetics or nutrition
Term
pathophysiology of OCD of the elbow?
Definition
due to little nutrition being able to get to chondrocytes in the thickened cartilage so they become necrotic and so are more susceptible to trauma - flap present = OCD
Term
diagnosis of OCD?
Definition
signalment - often large breed young dogs about 6-7 months old
elbow pain on extension and may have joint effusions
Radiography
Term
Treatment of OCD?
Definition
surgical removal of the flap
prognosis is good
Term
Ununited anconeal process/?
Definition
It has a separate site of ossification which usualy closes around 5-6 months old
If fails - un-united
Term
Diagnosis of un united anconeal process?
Definition
large breed dog
crepitus
pain on extension
Radiography
Term
Treatment of ununied anconeal process?
Definition
surgical or medical
Surgeyr - fixation or removal
Term
Incomplete ossifation of the humeral condyle results in?
Definition
lead to humeral condyle #
Pain
Term
developmental elbow luxation/subluxation?
Definition
due to asynchonrous growth
premature physis closure
Term
congential subluxation - what are the 2 types?
Definition
Type 1- humeroulna lux
Type 2 - radial head laxation
Term
Shoulder OCD?
Definition
due to failure of endochondral ossification
alway the caudal humeral head
4-8 months old
Term
Reason for carpal luxation in adult dogs?
Definition
usually a form of trauma has occured leading to palmer ligament loss of function
Term
What sort of stance does a dog with carpal luxation have?
Definition
palmargrade stance
Term
medial patellar deviation?
Definition
a cause of small toybreed immature dog lameness
Due to a misalignment in the quadriceps mechanism so that the patellar deviates medially at the trochlear sulcus
Term
what are the grades of patellar luxation?
Definition
1- in sulcus and spntaneously returns to the sulcus when manually luxated
2. stays in the sulcus when in and stays out when luxated out
3. out of the sulcus and spontaneously returns when luxted into the sulus
4. out of the sulcus, cant be manually luxated into the sulcus
Term
sort of movemetn assoc with patella luxation?
Definition
skipping and hopping
Term
Treatment for patellar deviation?
Definition
aymptomatic or surgical
Term
what are the 4 methods of surgery used for correcting patellar deviation?
Definition
1 lateral tibial tuberosity transpoition
2. trochear wedge
3. medial desmotomy
4. lateral capsular overlap
Term
Quadriceps contracture?
Definition
immature small breed dog cause of lameness
#Due to trauma or immobilisation
Have stifle hyperextension and fibrosis
Term
what is legg-perthes disease?
Definition
ischeamic Necrosis of the femoral head
6-9months old dogs affected
Diagnosis based on xray - see lysis and mottling of the femoral head and neck
Term
Treatment of Legg perths disease?
Definition
THR
medical - poor responce
Term
OCD of the talus
Definition
flap formation and degeneration of the talkus articular surface
5-7 month old large breed dogs
Usually the medial ridge of the talus affected
Term
Conditions that can occur to the stifle joint that occur in immature large breed dogs?
Definition
OCD
lateral patellar deviation
Cr Cruciate ligament rupture
Term
Lateral patellar luxation?
Definition
hx od skipping gait
graded 1-4 lameness
Term
Treatment of lateral patellar luxation?
Definition
meidial tibial crest transposition
Tibial wedge
Term
Hip dysplasia?
Definition
Immature large breed dog issue - causing lameness
Due to malformation of the hip joint and soft tissue laxity allowing the femoral had to come out of place
Term
Aetiology of hip dysplasia?
Definition
genetics
environment - weight, nutrition
Term
What 3 tests can be carried out to help diagnose hip dysplasia?
Definition
Ortalani sign
Barden's Sign
Barlow's sign
Term
Treatments for hip dysplasia?
Definition
pelvic osteotomy
fem head and neck osteotomy
total hip replacement
Medical management
Term
3 types of achilles tendon injury/
Definition
Complete rupture
Partial rupture
Tendonitis
Term
What are the three parts of the achilles tendon?
Definition
The gastrocnemius
common tendon of the semitendonosis
SDFT
Term
Diagnosis of achilles tendon disease?
Definition
history, c/s , radiography and ultrasound
Term
what are the finctions of the cranial cruciate ligament?
Definition
Limit cranial movement of the tibia
To limit internal rotation
To limit stifle extension
To limit valgus/varus movement
Term
pathogenesis of cr cruciate rupture>
Definition
degenerative usually
Term
apart from the cranial draw test what other test can be done to see if the crucitae is ruptured?
Definition
cranial tibial thrust test
Term
Treatment for ruptured cruciate?
Definition
medical - NSAIDS
surgery - debride the ligament to stabilise the joint - can't be repaired as such
Term
stablisation methods for cruciate rupture?
Definition
extracapsular stabilisation
TPLO
Tibial tuberosity advancement
Term
what is panosteitis?
Definition
endosteal new bone formation due to inflammation
Term
signalment of panosteitis?
Treatment?
Definition
less than 2 years old with shifting lameness
Treat with analgesia and support
Term
what is craniomandibular ostephathy?
Definition
lamellar bone formation on the occipital, tympanic and mandible bones
often happends in west highland white terriers
Dx on xray
Term
Delvosterone treatment in bitchs?
Definition
aka proligestone - a contraceptive that postones heat
repeat injections
Term
suppression of male infertility
Definition
deslorelin GnRH analogue
causes testosterone suppression
Term
ways of PD in the bitch?
Definition
manual
Ultrasound
Xray
Term
When can you do abdominal palpation?
Definition
d28-35 0 feel vesicles
d55-63 - feel bits of pup
Term
Ultrasound in dogs for PD from what age?
Definition
d16 - early!
D28 usually
Term
Other tests for PD in the bitch?
Definition
relaxin assay
behavioural/ohysical changes
Term
Pseudopregnancy
Definition
physiological state when no luteolysis of the CL occurs even though not pregnant
High prolactin P4
Term
Treatments fir pseudopregnancy?
Definition
dopamine agonists
Galastop
Term
Messaliance options for treatment?
Definition
alizin
Mesalin
OVH
galastop
prostaglandins
Term
Method of Alizin?
Definition
PG steroid
competes with realy PG receptors
used up to day 42
2 injections 24hrs apart
Term
What is a pyometra?
c/s?
Definition
pus fulled uterus
Usually 6-8 weeks after a season
pu/pd, vomiting
depressed
vulval discharge
Term
Diagnosis of a pyometra?
Definition
clincial signs and history
Ultrasound
heamatology and biochem
xray
Term
How owuld you manage a pyometra?
Definition
stabilise - fluids antibioticz and take a blood sample
Treat with - surgery
- medically - alizin
Term
why would you opt to treat a pyo medically and not remove it via surgery?
Definition
If it is a young bitch that is gping to be used for breeding
Open pyo??
if no renal compromise and is in good health and condition
Term
jeuvenile vaginitis?
Definition
occurs in pre pubertal bitches
vulva will be inflammed and there may be a small amount of dischargw but it self resolves
Term
Ovarian remnant syndrome?
Definition
occurs when an OVH has not been carried out successfully and a bit of ovarian tissue has been left in situ
bitch will still show oestrous behaviour
Term
DDX for ovarian remnant syndrome?
Definition
neoplasia
anal gland infections
cystitis
Term
How can you tell when whelping is imminent?
Definition
P4 levels <2ng/ml
Body temp will reduce a little
on time - 64-66days post LH surge
Term
First stage of labour in the bitch?
Definition
6-24hrs prior
restless
nesting
Term
2nd stage labour in the bitch?
Definition
3-6hrs long
uterine and abdominal contractions and pups are expelled
can have almost an hour between expelling each pup
Term
3rd stage of labour in the whelping bitch?
Definition
licking and placenta expellation after each pup
Term
What classes as dystocia?
Definition
if gestation is over 72 days
no pup after 2-3 hours
no pup after 30 mins of hard stage 2 labour
more than 4hrs between pups
fetal compromise
Maternal compromise
Term
Causes of mastitis in bitches?
Signs?
Definition
red hot firm and painful
often ecoli or staphs
Antibiotics and draining the glands
IVFT
Term
why do bitches have an increased sensitiivty to aneathetics?
Definition
becuase they have increased circulating levels of P4 which acts like an aneathetic
Term
What pre medication can a pregnant bitch have?
Definition
low dose ACP
and a short acting opioid
Term
which pre med should not be used?
Definition
xylazine
Term
what is contraindicated during aneatheisa in a pregnant bitch?
Definition
no mask induction is allowed
Term
best induction protocol in a pregnant bitch?
Definition
rapid sequence injection - rapid blous of propofol
Term
indications for c section in a bitch?
Definition
elective
Dysticia - palpated or radiography
mummified pups
maternal toxaemia
Term
Prep for a c section in a bitch?
Definition
clip, scrub
midline or flank
Double drape - so once pups removed and loads of fluid everywhere can whisk one drape off and be drier or cleaner for closure
Term
Method of a section?
Definition
midline incision
exteriorise and pack off the uterus, incise over the body of the uterus and milk the pups down to it and clamp cords for a couple of miniutes beofre cutting them.
Closure:-
Mucosae and submuscosae - simple continuoys PDS/vircryl
Term
timing of an elective caesarian?
Definition
progesterone assay?
vaginal cytology
temp change
first stage labour
immaging
Term
how are brain lesions divided up?
Definition
brainstem, cerebellum and forebrain
Term
3 signs of cerebellar disease?
Definition
intention tremors
ataxia
hypermetria
Term
how are brain stem lesions usually presented?
Definition
as cranial nerve deficits
Term
clincial signs of cerebellar disease?
Definition
dysmetria
Ataxia
High stepping gait
head tremor
Term
Clinical signs of forebrain disease?
Definition
- seizures
- altrered behaviour eg loss of house training or ownner recognition
- ipsilateral head tilt
- decreased consciousness
- blindess - contralateral
Term
which cranial nerves are assoc with the forebrain?
Definition
CN 1 AND 2
1- olfactory
2- optic
Term
How can you test CN2?
Definition
menace responce and the PLR
Menace- tests the whole pathway form the eye to the cerellum and visual cortex

PLR - asses pupillary motor nerve and the pathway up to the optic chiasm
Term
palpebral reflex?
Definition
make the animal blink - just checks that the animal is not facially paralysed
Term
head tilt means?
Definition
vestibular lesion usually
Term
Brainstem disease - clinical signs?
Definition
reduced mentation
proprioception issues
CN3-12 deficits
Brain stem disease is fatal
Term
CN 3,4 and 6?
Innervate?
Lesions and testing them?
Definition
3 - occular
4- trochlear
5- abducent
innervate the occular muscles and pupil constriction
Test: PLR, strabismus, physiological nystagmus
lesions - pupil dilation
Term
CN 5 innervates what?
Definition
Trigeminal nerve - facial mouscles and corneal sensation
loss of sensation
Assess - facial sensation
Jaw tone and maticatory muscles - atrophy?
Term
CN 7?
Definition
Facial nerve
muscles of facial expression and salivary glands

Lesions - dropping lips, excess salivation
Assess - Paplpebral reflex, sensational mvemtn and schmirmir tear test
Term
CN8?
Definition
vestibulocochlear
blanace and hearing
Lesions - headtilt, ataxia, nystagmus, vomiting

Asses - physiological strabismus
Term
Vestibulo-occular reflex?
Definition
physiological strabismus - fast phase movement of eyes - mediated through the brainstem
slow phase is vestibular in origin
Term
vestibular dysfunction can be seen as...?
Definition
spontaneous strabismums
vertical,horizontal or rotational
Term
paradoxical vestibular disease?
Definition
when there is a elsions with CN 8 and so have a head tilt ipsilateral to the lesion - slow phase towards the lesion
Term
cerebellar lesion - fast phase and slow phase nystagmums is in which direction?
Definition
fast phase towards lesion and slow phase away from the lesionand the head tilit is contraltaeral
Oppostie to a CN8/brainstem lesion
Term
CN 9 and 10?
Definition
9 - glossopharyngeal
10- Vagus
Lesion would lead to an altered bark, problems swallowing and regurgutation
Because these nerves innervate laryngeal and pharyngeal muscles
Gag reflex
Term
CN 11 and 12?
Definition
11- Accessory
12- hypoglossal
tongue and cervial muscle innervation
assess tongue tone
Term
signs of horner's syndrome?
Definition
miosis
enopthalmus
3rd eyelid protrussion
sweating
ptosis
eythema
Term
what are come of the conditions that cause acute paralysis and paresis?
Definition
intervertebral disc disease
neoplasai
discophondylitis
lumbosacral stenosis
atlanto-axial subluxation
canine chiari malformation
Term
Spinal cord pain in young dogs <2years old - causes?
Definition
meningitis
Discospondylitis
atlanto-axial subluxation
chiari malformation
Term
Olde dogs spinal cord pain causes?
Definition
intervertebral disc issues
neoplasia
lumbosacral stenosis
Term
Initial work up for a dog with spinal pain?
Definition
radiography
CSF tap sample
blood work
APPs
Term
What is discospondylitis?
Definition
infection of inter-vertebral disk and the adjacent end plates
1y cause - from heamatogenous spread or from a direct injury such as a bite
Term
common sites for discospondylitis?
Definition
LS junction
TL junction
Caudal cervical
Term
Diagnosis of discospondylitis?
Definition
Xray - will see roughening and destruction of the end plates and both vertebrae are affected
blood and urine culture
Term
treatment of discospondylitis?
Definition
Antibiotics - for 6-8 weeks
aalgesics
strict rest
Term
Steroid responsive meningitis? SRM
Definition
Low head and stiff neck and slow walking
fever
anorexia
young animal 8-18months old
fluctating signs
Diagnosis on CSF - full of neutrophils
Term
how do you collect a CSF tap?
Definition
cisternal cerebrospinal fluid puncture
- back of the head btween the atlas and occipital crest
Term
Treatment of SRM?
Definition
steroids - prednisolone at immunosuppressive dose for 12 days
May self resolve by 24 months old
Term
Atlanto axial subluxation?
Definition
toybreeds
young
cervical pain
Dx - Xray
Tx - conservative or arthordesis
Term
Canine Chirari malformation?
Definition
king charles cavaliers
scratchy and painful
No neuro issues

Caudal occipital malformation - hypoplsia so the cerrebellum is too big for the skull - which leads to reduced circulation of CSF which leads to another syndrome called syringohydromyelia
Term
syringohydromyelia is what?
Definition
is a sequale to chriari malformation due to reduced CSF flow
dialtion of the central canal of the spinal cord and a fluid filled cavitation in the spinal cord
This is what leads to the scratching issues
Term
Age of onset of chiari malformation?
Diagnosis and Treatment?
Definition
6months to 10 years old
Diagnosis - MRI
Treatment - medical - nsaids and gabapentin or low dose steroid
- surgical - decompress the foramne magnum
Term
Lumbo-sacral stenosis?
Clinical signs?
Definition
large breed dogs in middle age
clinical signs:- pain over that area in hyperextension
intermittant lameness
There are 3 types of stenosis
always occurs l7-s1
Term
Diagnosis of LS stenosis?
Treatment?
Definition
CT/MRI
medical or surgical treatment
medical - nsaids and gabapentin
Term
Conditions presenting as acute paralysis?
Definition
disc disease - degenerative and traumatic
Fibrocartilagenous embolism
Neoplsia
Trauma
Term
Degenerative disc disease?
Definition
Hansen type 1 and 2
protrusion and extrusion
Term
Hansen type 1?
Definition
Dis extrusion
Nucleus pulposes - chondroid degeneration and hardening so herniates through the annulus fibrosis dring a traumatic event
ACUTE
Term
Hansen type 2?
Definition
Disc protrusion
CHRONIC
due to annulus fibrosis degeneration and hardens and protrudes out to compress the spinal cord
Term
Hansen type 1 in which type of breeds?
Definition
chondrydyplastic - eg basett
young
TL region and cervical
Term
diagnosis of disk disease?
Definition
MRI or xray or CT
Term
Treatment of Disc diseasE?
Definition
conservative - rest
Surgical
Term
traumatic disc disease?
Definition
non degenerative
traumatic extrusion causing spinal cord injury but not compression
Term
FCE?
Definition
fibrocartilagenous embolism
- Ischemic damage from acute emboli - disc derived cartilage
Large breed dogs
Term
Diagnosis of FCE?
Definition
MRI
Term
Spinal trauma?
Definition
must stabilise first!!
A,B,C, thoracic xrays etc
Assess the presence of deep pain perception
Often occurs in thoraco-lumbaar area and areas of movement
Treatment p conservative
Term
Conditions presenting as progressive paresis?
Definition
Neoplsai
LS stenosis
Hansen type 2
degenerative myelopathy
myleitis
Term
neoplsai classification?
Definition
extradural - outwith the meninges
Intradural - affects the meninges but not the cord
Intrameduallary - affects the cord
Term
degenerative myelopathy?
clinical signs?
Definition
ataxia
older dogs 6-7 years old
large breeds
gradual onset
no spinal pain
Term
diagnosis of degenerative myelopathy?
Definition
PM
genetic testing
History and signs
Term
myelitis? what is it?
Definition
inflammation of the spinal cord
2 types :- immune mediated (granulomatous meningioencephalitis)
or infectious - FIP/ toxoplasma
Term
Wobbler's Syndrome?
Definition
due to chronic cervical spinal cord compression
Term
What are the two types of wobbler's syndrome you can get?
Definition
Disk associated:- like a hansen type 2 - c5,6,7 - older dogs
or
osseous associated:- younger dogs due to articular facets on the dorsal arch causing compression
Term
what is a neuropathy?
Junctionopathy?
myopathy?
Definition
neuropathy - disease that affects the neurone
Myopathy - disease tha affects the muscle
Junctionopathy - disease that affects the motor juntions
Term
How do peripheral neuropathyies present themselves?
Definition
as neurological deficts
Term
Initial diagnositcs of neuropathies etc?
Definition
Heamatology and biochem
Endocrine tests
Muscle enzymes
infectious disease titres
Abdominal ultrasound
Term
what disease present with persistant deficits - broad catergories?
Definition
Degenerative
metabolic
neoplsia
infectious
TINFLAMMATORY
toxic
vascular
Term
Degeneratiove neuropathies?
Definition
motor or sensory neuropathies
(Motor neuropathy is inherited and all legs affected
demyelinating polyneuropathy
DIABETIC NEUROPATHY
- axonal denegeration due to poor controlled diabetes melitus
Term
Malignant tumour of the nerve sheath?
Definition
common and occurs in old
brachial or lumbar plexus affected
no orthodpedic cause
will fell a mass at each intumesance - dx
Diagnose - ultrasound and MRI and electromyography
Term
Neospora caninum?
Definition
an infectious neuropathy
infection via ingestion or transplacental to the pups ]Diagnosis is on serology
Treat with clindmycin
causes stiff pelvic limbs and quads contracture
Term
T. gondii?
Definition
infection via ingestion of bradyzoites
causes a ultisystemic disease - resp apparatus, msucels etc
clincial signs - short stride and stiff
Term
neuropraxia?
Definition
traumatic neuropathy - interfers with conduction of the nerve signal without physical disruption to the axon
Term
Diseases presenting with exercise intolerance?
Definition
junctionopathies and myopathies
Term
name some junctionopathies
Definition
myasthenia gravis
exercise induced collapse
Term
Name some myopathies
Definition
polymyositis
Term
what is myasthenia gravis?
Definition
congenital or aquired condition that results in the formation of antibodies against acetylcholine receptors so no nerve signals can be conducted
Term
which form of myasthenia gravis is most common?
Definition
most commonly acquired form
which can be focal or generalised -
focal - could be any muscle group
Generalised - collapsing episodes exercise intolerance
Term
Diagnosis of myasthenia gravis?
Definition
ach receptor AbS?
tension test - endrophonium which is a drug that blocks the ach'ase enzyme that normally breaks up Ach - blocking this enzyme allows more Ach to be produced which can overcome the antibodies present
Term
what are some poor prognostic indicators of mysathenia gravis?
Definition
aspiration pneumonia
thymoma
pharyngeal weakness
Term
what is exercise induces collapse
Definition
common in labradors
genetic mutation of a gene that gelps fusion of synaptic vesicles
Term
what are the 3 causes of polymyositis?
Definition
autoimmune
infectious
paraneoplastic
Term
diagnosis of polymyositis?
treatment?
Definition
CK, ALT and AST
tapering immunosuppressive drugs
Term
Asymmetrical signs imply what sort of lesion?
Definition
intracranial
Term
what are the major extracranial forebrain disease? (nb not always neurologically based)
Definition
Metabolic diseases - portosystemic shunt, electrolyte issues, low glucose

Endocrine Disease - hypo/hyperthryoid, HAC

Toxins - lead poinsoning etc
Term
Major intracranial forebrain disease?
Definition
neoplsia
immune mediated inflammatory dz
Infectious
traumatic
congenital
Term
Definition
limited treatment
give preds
Term
Meningioma?
Definition
grows at the base of the forebrain
Term
oligodendroglioma?
Definition
grows towards the ventricals
Term
Immune mediated inflammatory CNS disease?
Definition
meningorncephalites - granulomatous, necrotic or necrotic leukoenchephalites

Steroid responsive meningoencephalites
Term
Meningoencephalites?
Definition
common in small toy breeds
young to middle age
progressiveneuro dysfunction
Term
diagnosis of Meningoencephalites?
Definition
CSF analysis
MRI
Term
Treatment of Meningoencephalites?
Definition
immunosuppressive steroids
cytaribine - tapering doses
Term
what are the four ways in which a brain can herniate?
Definition
sub-faulx
rostral transtentoral
caudal transtentorial
through the foramen magnum
Term
How do you recognise an increase in intracranial pressure?
Definition
alterred mentation
cushing reflex - increased blood pressure and a bradycardia
papilloedema
reduced gag reflex
Term
cerebellar diseases?
Definition
Hypoplasia
inherited metabolism disorders
inflammatory
infectious
Neiplsia
Vascular
Term
what are the forms of seizure activity?
Definition
focal - starts in and stays in one cereral hemisphere
involves isolated parts of the body

Generalised - activity throufhout bot hemispheres, usual tonic-clonic action

Focal-generalised - starts as focal and spreads to have generalised activity throughot the brain +
+
Term
stages of an epileptic fit?
Definition
pre-ictal
- prodrome - start
- aura
- ictus - the actual seizure

Post ictal - transient alterations and impaired consciousness
Term
What happens during a seizure?
Definition
Tonic phase - irregular respiration, contracted libs
Clonic phase - paddling and jerking of limbs and chewing action
Term
causes of seizures?
Definition
Extracranial - metabolic, inflammatory

Intracranial - structural or functional
Term
important extra cranial cuases of seizures?
Definition
hepatic shunts
hypoglycaemia
toxic causes
Term
intracranial causes of seizures?
Definition
tumours
granulomatous meningoencephalitis
head trauma
infectious
congenital conditions
Term
what anti convulsant medications can you use for seizues?
Definition
pexion
phenobarbitone
potassium bromide - NOT FOR CATS
Term
what are the aims of seizure treatment?
Definition
reduce freq, severity
reduce risks for owners
delay progression
minimise side effects
Term
Reasons to treat an animal that fits?
Definition
more than one a month
reduced quality of life
History of clusters
Increased freq of fits
Term
reasons not to treat a dog with seizures
Definition
less than one a month
no effect on the quality of life
if they are breif and milk
side effects of drugs may have a greater impact
Term
first lineoptions for medication in dogs?
Definition
phenobarbitone
imepitoin
potassium bromide
Term
first lineoptions for medication in cats?
Definition
phenobarbitone
diazepam
levetricetam
Term
side effects to drugs for seixure control?
Definition
sedation PU/PD
ataxia and paresis
hepatotoxicity - so must regularly check liver enzymes
Term
when should serum levels be checked after starting seizure control medication?
Definition
2 weeks after start
Term
what must you monitor when animals are on phenobarbitone medication?
Definition
liver enzymes - ALKP and ALT
Term
what is good about imepition?
Definition
no hepatic toxicity
shirt half life no drug interactions
Term
CLuster seizure
Definition
more than 2 in 24hrs
Term
status epilepticus?
Definition
Continuous seizure activity for more than 5 minutes
fatal
Start with a short acting anticonvulsant first and supportive care then go onto maintenance anticonvulsants - diazepam or midozalam
Give rectal diazepam and can be repeated up to 3 times
IV also possible
Term
what are the different segments of the spinal cords?
Definition
c1-c6
c6-t2
t3-l3
l4-s1
s2 -sacral
Term
Paresis
Definition
partial loss of volountary movement
Term
Paralysis
Definition
complete loss of volountary movement
Term
How can you assess proprioception?
Definition
knuckling response
hopping reastion
hemiwalking
wheelbarrow
postural thrusting
hip sway
visual and tactile placing
Term
Proprioceptive tests test which pathway?
Definition
from the limb, spinal cord and brain and motor nerves back
Term
what things are involved in a reflex arc?
Definition
sensory and motor neurone and a ganglion
Term
what are a couple of the spinal reflexeS?
Definition
patellar
withdrawl
Term
signs that a LMN is affected?
Definition
reduced muscle tone, mass, loss of reflex
sp if pelvic limbs had no lesions involving LMN - the lesions would be L4-l6
Term
Cushings?
Definition
hyperadrenocortism - iatrogeni or spontaneous
Term
Spontaneous Cushings?
Definition
pituitary tumour - Pituitray dependant -MOST COMMON
or
adrenal tumour/hypertrophy
Term
Pituitray dependant Cushings?
Definition
Pituitray mass -n so large amounts of ACTH produced which leads to lots of cortisol release form the adrenal gland
Term
Effects of increased cortisol on the body?
Definition
catabolic hormone - increased metabolism, increased protein lipid, gluocse metabolism, symmetircal allopecia,
PU/PD
Term
clinical signs of HAC?
Definition
PU/PD, alopecia,weight loss, pot belly lethargy
Often older small terrier type dogs
Term
Serum biochemistry of a dog with cushings?
Definition
high ALKP
High cholesterol
high bile salts
high glucose

Decreased urea and creatinine
Term
what haematology would be seen in a dog with cushings?
Definition
stress leukogram
Neutrophilia
lymphopenia
eosinophilia
Term
urinalysis in a cushingoid dog?
Definition
low USG
proteinuria
glucosuria
Term
how do you diagnose HAC?
Definition
ACTH stimulation test
Stimulate the adrenal gland to secrete cortisol
Blood sample before and after admin
after should be 30mins to 2hrs post admin
Term
what is another test apart from the ACTH stimualtion test that can be used?
Definition
low dose dexmth test
so this will normally stop/inhibit acth release
But in HAC - they will rapidly recover or it will fail completely to suppress
Term
what is the disadvantage of the Low dose dexmeth test?
Definition
time consuming
stress induced cortisol interfers with the results so have to do it when nothing else is going on - not even a dental
Term
treatment of Cushings?
Definition
trilostant - steroid enzyme inhibitor
mitotane
Term
monitoring of a cushings patient?
Definition
monitor the clinical signs such as PuPD
do the ACTH stumilation test 10-14 days later
do a pre and post cortisol level test
Term
complications of treatment of a cushings paient?
Definition
electrolyte balances
Term
HAC in cats?
Definition
uncommon
would present as thin skinned
Term
hypothyroidism is common in which species?
Definition
dogs
Term
how is the thyroid hormone controlled?
Definition
TRH from the hypothalamus
TSH from th anterior pituitary
both causing the release of t3 and t4 which have a -ve effect on TSH and TRH
Term
what is sick euthyroid syndrome?
Definition
patient has an illness non related to the thyroid but thyroid levels are low as a result of this other illness
eg starvation
surgery
Term
causes of hypothryoidism?
Definition
primary - lymphocytic immune mediated thyroiditis - MOST COMMON
2y - TSH failure
3t - TRH failure
Term
which signalment is most likely to be assoc with hypothyroidism?
Definition
large young breeds
HAVE THRYOGLOBULIN ANTIBODIES
Term
general diagnosis of hypothyroidism?
Definition
bloods
clincial signs
other specific tests
Term
clincial signs assic with hypothyroidism?
Definition
lethargy, obesity,
cold intolerance, symmetrical allopecia - non pruritic
bradycardia
pale mms
Lower motor neurone disease
Term
confirming the diagnosis of hypothroidism?
Definition
increased cholesteral and triglycerides
total T4 levels
TRH and TSH stimulation tests
Term
what level of t4 would indicate hypothryroidism?
Definition
0-14nmol/l
Term
clinical diagnosis of hypothyroidism?
Definition
clinical signs, low t4 AND high TSH
Term
Hyperthyroidism is common in which animal usually?
Definition
cats - older and its a gradual onset
Term
causes of hyperthryoidism?
Definition
adenomatous hyperplsia - benign
functional
Term
clincial signs of hyperthryoidism?
Definition
clincial signs:_
metabolic - weight loss
behaviour - neurotic/excitable
Skin - poor condition
GIT - vomiting and diarrhea
high heart rate
thyroid nodule
Term
risk factors for hyperthyroidism?
Definition
canned food
ectoparasiticides
litter trays
Term
causes of weight loss in older cats?
Definition
hyperthyroidism
chronic renal failure
diabetes mellitus
cardiomyopathy
Term
what is considered a diagnostic level of t4 for a cat to be classed as hyperthyroid?
Definition
>60mmol/l
Term
Treatment options for hyperthyroidism?
Definition
4 methods
1. Nutritional
2. medical
3. surgical
4. radiotherapy
Term
Dietry management of hyperthyroid cats?
Definition
something like the Hills Y/D diet which is low in iodine
Term
medical control of hyperthyroidism?
Definition
methimazole or carbimazole
thyrotoxic
Term
complications that can occur with hyperthyroid cats when undergoing surgical removal of the goitre?
Definition
heamorhage
hypocalceamia - due to the parathyroid gland being lifted aswell - try to leave it in
Vocal changes
Term
Radiotherapy treatment for hyperthyroidism in cats?
Definition
a single jag of radioactive iodine
- destroys cells DNA
Term
what diseases can hyperthyroidism cover up and how?
Definition
it can mask the effects of chronic kidney disease
Becuase with jhyperthyroidism - you get an increased heart rate which means increased blood pressure alleviating any poor kidney perfusion and therefore improving their function if they are diseased
Term
monitoring hyperthryoid patients?
Definition
if being medically managed - can check their t4 levels 1, 3 and 6 months then every 6 months
Surgery - measure 1 and 3 months post opp
Term
what is diabetes mellitus?
Definition
chronic state of hyperglyceamia due to a lack if insulin or its affects
-
Term
what does insulin do normally?
Definition
convert glucose to glycogen in the liver which allows glucose uptake and ketogenesis is swtiched off
Term
Type 1 vs type 2 diabetes mellitus? humans
Definition
Type 1 - immune mediates form - insulin dependant
Type 2 - non immune mediated - due to amyloid deposition and so is non insulin dependant too
Term
in veterinary - type 1 is?
Definition
canine insulin dependant but not early onset
Cats can get both types but type 2 is more common
Term
pathology of diabetes mellitus in cats?
Definition
Islet cell destruction (via amyloidosis) etc plus peripheral insulin resistance - leads to reduced production of insuin and there for less control over glucose metabolism
Term
pathology to diabetes in dogs?
Definition
resistance to insulin in the body causes an increased production which exhausts the islet cells and they die and so dog develops diabetes relative to requirement
Term
D. mellitus clinical signs?
Definition
weight loss
PUPD
glucosuria
hungry
weak
exercise intolerance
UTI
bright alert and responcive though
Term
how can you confirm the problem of diabetes mellitus?
Definition
urinalysis - glucosuria
plus the clinical signs

Serum Biochem - increased glucose, liver enzymes
Cholesterol
Term
stabilisation of d.mellitus patients?
Definition
diet, exercise and insulin - right balance
Term
types of insulin available?
Definition
length of actions -
Short - soluble
Intermediate - lente
Long acting - protamine
Term
sources of insulin?
Definition
beef - cats
pig - dogs
Term
diet considerations for a diabetic?
Definition
avoid simple sugars
Give complex carbs
eg starches
Term
somogyi effect?
Definition
high blood glucose - rebound hyperglycaemia - due to a too rapid a drop
Term
complications associated with diabetes mellitus?
Definition
cateracts
ketoacidosis
hypoglycaemia
failure to stabilise
Term
why would a diabetic collapse?
Definition
ketoacidosis
hyopglycaemia
septicaemia
Term
diabetic ketoacidosis clinical signs?
diagnosis?
Definition
fatal, need ICU
c/s:- tachycardia, vomiting, collapsed, dehydrated, haemorhagic diarrhoea

Dx - presence of ketones
Term
confirming ketosis?
Definition
glucose and ketones in the urine
Biochem - hypoK+
- hyperglycaemia
- azotemia
Term
treatment of ketoacidotic diabetes
Definition
fluids - with K+ supplementation
Insulin - small doses
Term
signs of hypophosphateameia?
Definition
aneamia
weakness
seizures
Term
hypoglycaemia?
signs
Definition
common complication of chornic insulin medication
Rapid onset
hungry
ataxic
fitting
Term
what happens if a seuizuring hypoglycaemic patient comes in?
Definition
stop the insulin and feed ASAP - sugar solution
glucagon
Term
other causes of hypoglycaemia?
Definition
insulinoma
addisons
severe liver failure
Term
clinical signs of insulinoma?
Definition
weakness
episodic collapse
depressed
incoordination?
Term
hypoadrenocortism?
Definition
aka addisons - Low cortisol - high K+ and low Na2+
can collapse
cause is often unknown
Term
DDx of metabolic collapse?
Definition
diabetic ketoacidosis
hypoglycaemia
hypo/perkalaemia
hepatic encephalopathy
Hypo/percalcaemia
Hypo/pernatraemia
Term
History often assoc with addisons?
Definition
weakness and falling over
Term
Investigation of addisons?
Definition
if heart sounds ok ,
run bloods - check calcium and glucose
Term
hypokalaemia causes?
Definition
<3
intestinal
chronic renal failure
Chronic diuresis
Term
cause of addisons?
Definition
immune mediates aldosterone and cortisol deficiency
- Kidney excretes K+
and get retention of Na+
Term
Signalment of addisons
Definition
young - middle aged
could have been mitotane/trilostane induced
Term
clincial signs of addisons?
Definition
dehydrated
anorexia
vomiting
bradycardia
Haemorrhagic enteritis

All due to low K+
Term
ddx for addisons?
Definition
parvo
AV block
chronic heart failure
Myasthenia gravis
Term
haematology of addisonian patient?
Definition
aneamia
dehydrated
WBC-s will show a massive stress leukogram
Term
Biochem of addisonian patient?
Definition
high K+
low Na
urea and creatinine increased
glucose, bilirubin etc all decreased
Term
what does hyperkalaemia causes?
Definition
rbc lysis
overhydration
Term
Diagnostic tests for addisons?
Definition
ACTH stimulation test
Cortisol should rise to above 80
Term
Treatment for addisons?
Definition
reduced k+
fluids!
glucocorticoid replacement
Term
what do you treat hyperkalaemia with?
Definition
saline solution 0.9%
Term
ddx for inspiratory dyspnoea?
Definition
nasopharyngeal mass/stenosis/DB
larhyngeal paralysis
tracheal mass/fb/stenosis
Term
dx for expiratory dyspnoea?
Definition
airway collapse
asthma
parenchymal disease
Term
DDx for inspiratory/expiratory dyspnoea or tachypnoea?
Definition
pleural effusion
pneumomedastinum
thromboembolism
Term
what does an increased resp effort on inspiration tell you?
Definition
possible obstruction URT
Term
what does increased expiratory effirt suggest?
Definition
lung parenchynal dusea
Term
causes of pneumothorax?
Definition
trauma
spontaneous
iatrogenic
Term
treatment of pneumothorax?
Definition
none/rest
simple drain
surgery
Term
diagnosis if pleural effusion?
Definition
xray
ultrasound
cytology
biopsy
Term
pyothorax?
cause and clincial signs?
Definition
aka exudatative pluerisy
often due to a cat bite of some form of trauma, FB,
intrapleural infection

Clincial signs - dyspnoea
pyrexic, inappetant
ventral thoracic dullness
Term
treatment of pyothorax?
Definition
drainage / lavage
Antibiotics - braod spec - 4-6 weeks
NSADIS
Term
causes of chylothorax?
Definition
trauma, neoplsia, iatorgenic, CHF
Term
Treatment of chylothorax?
Definition
conservative - diuretics drainage and a low fat diet
Surguical - ligate the thoracic duct
Term
mediastinal disease type?
Definition
megoesophagus
masses
pneumomediastinum
mediastinitis
Term
mediastinal masses - effects?
Definition
venous congestion
dyspnoea
- effusion
dysphagia
horeners syndorme
Term
pulmonary fibrosis?
treatment?
Definition
in middle aged small breeds
progressive
cough
crackles
Tx - antiinflammatories
Term
pneumonia causes?
Definition
immunodeficiency
viral infeciton
megaoesophagus and aspiration
Term
therapy for pneumonia?
Definition
antibiotkcs
NSAIDS
Term
pulmonary oedema causes?
Definition
cardiogenic - CHF
toxic
neuro
Tx with diuretics and oxygen
Term
laryngeal paralysis? causes
Definition
neurogenic
muscular
neuromuscular
Treat with surgery
Term
Tracheal collapse? signalment
management
Definition
young to middle aged
Cough - goose honk and dyspnoea
Term
Tracheal collapse management?
Definition
acp to calm, oxygen
cool environment short acting steroids

Chronic management- avoid using collar and lead, avoid infections, control obesity
Term
feline asthma treatment?
Definition
brincholdilators
coticosteroids
control the environment
Term
management of congestive heart failure?
Definition
preload reduction
Afterload reduction
postive ionotropic effects
imporoved diastolic finction
management of arrythmias
prevent remodelling
Term
preload reduction?
Definition
diuretics - frusemide
Term
afterlaod reduction?
Definition
ACE inhibitors - redcue vasocntriction and adh secretion and aldosterone
Pimobendan - postive inotrop
Term
posotive inotropic support?
Definition
pimobendan
or digoxin
Term
How to improve diastolic function?
Definition
beta blockers
abnormal diastolic finction offten asssic with myocardial concentric hypertrophy
Term
what arrythmias contribute to CHF?
Definition
supraventircular, ventricular and brdycardia
Term
remodelling prevention for CHF?
Definition
all the drugs that are already being used to treat CHF - spironilactone, pimobendan and ACE inhibitors
Term
Grade A, B1, B2, C and D classes of CHF?
Definition
A - at risk
B1 - murmur but no enlargement
B2 mumur and enlargement
C - CHF - dyspnoea and ascites
D - refractory CHF
Term
B2 management?
Definition
monritor and maybe start on pimobendan
Term
class C treatment?
Definition
pimobendan, frusemide, ACE inhibitors
Term
what is frusemide
Definition
a diuretix used to treat reduce preload in CHF
Stimulates the RAAS
Term
what is pimobendan?
Definition
reduced afterload and remodelling
positive inotrope
Term
diet for CHF patients?
overal management considerations?
Definition
little salt content
regular exercise - not exertive
no exercise when hot
Term
when monitoring CHF patients - what do you monitor?
Definition
urinalysis - for electrolytes and renal finction
Term
what to do if CHf patient goes into acute decompensation?
Definition
IV frusemide
glyceral trinitrate
oxygen
Term
drug for any arrythmias assoc with CHF?
Definition
atenalol
Term
causes of pericardial effusions?
Definition
left atrial ruptire
idiopathic
neoplastic
CHF
hypoprtieneamia
Term
pathophysiology of a pericardial effision?
Definition
an effusion leads to compression of the RHS and then reduced filling so decreased CO and forward failure

Decreased filling also leadsd to rhs CHF
Term
peridcardial effusion signlament?
Definition
large breeds
Present with - exercise intolerance
lethargy
pale mms
abdominal distension
weakness
Term
physical findings of pericardial effision?
Definition
Poor CO - pale, weak, lethargic, exercise intolerant, weak pulse, tachycardia

RHS CHF - ascites, liver congestion, jugular distension
Term
what do you find on ECG with pericardial effisions?
Definition
small QRS due to reduced transmission
Term
treamtne tof pericardial effusion?
Definition
pericardiocentesis
Term
some pericardial effusions are of smaller quantity and dont cause tamponade - small volume effusions are seen with what conditions?
Definition
CHF, hypoproteinaemia
uraemia
FIP
infection
Term
abdominal effusions in the dog - causeS?
Definition
hypoalbuminaemia
liver disease
neoplsia
Cardiac disease - DCM MV disease
Term
signs of an abdominal effusion?
Definition
fluid thrill
tachypnoea
abdominal pain
Term
transudate?
Definition
clear
Low cells <1500/ul
low protein<15g/l

Caused by pre sinusoidal obstruction
or hypoalbuminaemia
Term
Exudate?
Definition
straw yellow
High cells - >5000
high prtein >30
Term
neoplastic effusions?
Definition
heamorrhagic
sero-haemorrhagic
pseudochylous
chylous
Term
cardiac diseae that result in ascites?
Definition
pericardial disease]biventricular CHF
caval syndrome
pulmonic stenosis
Term
causes of pleural effusions?
Definition
infectious
neoplsatic
haemorragic
heart disease
Term
diagnosis of pleural disease?
Definition
xray and ultrasound and abdominocentesis
Term
heart worm in cats and dogs? clincial signs, treatment, diagnosis etc
Definition
dirofilaria immitus
clincial signs - cough, eercise intolerance, tachypnoea
syncope
ascites

Dianosis - blood smear
echo
haematolody - eosinohphilia
Tx with avermecticsmelarsomine
Term
aquired heart mrurmurs can be classified into two broad categories which are?
Definition
myocardial
Endocardial
Term
of these two catergories - what can be causing an acquired murmur?
Definition
Endocardial - endocardiosis and endocarditis

Myocardial - DCM, HCM, myocarditis
Term
Mitral valve disease??
Definition
aka endocardiosis
it is myxomatous degeneration of the heart valves which causes blood regurgitation - murmur
Kind charles cavalier spaniels commonly have it
>9years old
Caises CHF
Term
pathophysiology of endocardiosis
Definition
blood leakage causes volume overload of the Lv which dilates and get reduced CO - stimualtes the RAAS
leads to CHF left sided
so exercise intolerance, cough, and rhs failure due to LV failure - pulmonary hypertension
Term
clincial signs of MV disease?
Definition
systolic murmur
ascites, dyspnoea
exercise ontolerance
Term
diagnosis of MV disease?
Definition
cardiomegally - xray
Term
why do dogs with endocardiosis often have a cough?
Definition
due to the main bronchus being compressed by the enlarged heart
Term
ECG finding with a dog in endocardiosis?
Definition
large R wave - die to atrial enlargement
atrial fibrilation?
ectopics
Term
treatment of endocardiosis?
Definition
use the CHF scheme to grade and treat accodringly
Term
endocarditis?
Definition
bacterial cause that affetcs the aortic valve first and the mitral secondly

clinical sogns - pyrexia
Joint stuffness and a new left sided murmurs never been preent before
Term
diagnosis of endocarditis?
Treatment?
Definition
bloods
urine
joint tap
echo
ultrasound
Treat with antibiotics and supportive therapy
Term
prebention of endocaritis?
Definition
if undergouing dentals etc and have a predisposing factor such as a aortic stenosis then use prohpylactic Antibiots
Term
myocardial disease?
Definition
DCM - dogs or
HCM in cats
or myoarditis
Term
DCM
Definition
dilated cardiomyopathy - common in dogs more so than cats
primary or secondary causes
Often idiopathic or hereditary
large to medium breed dogs
Term
pathophyiology of DCM
Definition
DCM - leads to systolic failure - leads to reduced CO - so stimulates the RAAS
which leads to fluid retention then causing CHF - left or RHS
Term
treatment of DCM?
Definition
same as CHF aims - preload and afterload reduction, reduce remodelling and treat arrythmias
Term
cardiomyopathies in cats?
Definition
hypertrophic
restrictive
dilated
Term
HCM in cats? causes ?
Definition
inherited condition
Caused by sytemic hypertension or hyperthyroidism
Term
pathophysoligy of HCM in cats?
Definition
becuase of a thickened wakk - it cont contract a ell - diastolic failure which leads to LA enlargemnt - LHS heart failure
Term
In a cat with HCM - what tests would you run?
Definition
blood tests - check BP
kidney fnction
thyroid function
genetic tests
Term
DCM in cats?
Definition
taurine deficiency realated
Treat with AC inhibitors
Term
what is myocarditis, the causes and the treatment?
Definition
inflammation of the myocardium - can cause murmurs
Due to toxoplasmosis, neospora, parvo,
may go on to develop CHF
Treat - tx the 1y disease and also the arryhtmias
Term
causes of murmurs in pups and kittens?
Definition
commonly congential inherited disorders
or systemic disease
Term
most common causes of congential heart disease in dogs and cats?
Definition
Dogs - Aortic stenosis, PDA and pulmonic stenosis

Cats - VSD, mitral valve dysplasia, tricuspid valve dysplasia
Term
based on loactatio and character - what murmurs can be heard left heart base, apex and RHS?
Definition
LHS base:-
PDA - continous
pulmonic stenosis - systolic
Aortic stenosis - systolic

Left apex:-
mitral valave - systolic

RHS - tricuspid valve dysplasia
vsd
TOF
Term
on ECH what trace will LEFT side and right sided heart enlargement create?
Definition
left side enlargement - tall R wave
Right sided - deep S wave
Term
aortic stenosis?
Definition
narrowing - can be sub valvular
supravalvular
Term
clinical findings of aortic stenosis?
Definition
weak pulses
harsh systolic murmur
radiography - often looks normal
ECH - tall R waves
Term
pathophysiology of aortic stenosis?
Definition
narrowed opening -decreased CO - forward failure - Exercise intolerance
and hyperthorphy of LV - diastoilc failure
Term
treatment of aortic stenosis?
Definition
severe - beta blockers, calcium channel blockers
Term
PDA?
Definition
a vessle that usually joins the pulomnary artery and aorta in the fetus to bypass non functional lungs in utero
Should disaapear after borth but sometimes does and causes oxygenated blood to mix with non oxygenated as blood flows from left to right
pulmoary hypertension
Left side CHF
Term
what would you see on xray of PDA?
Definition
hypervascularisation of the lungs
Term
Treatment of PDA?
Definition
surgucak ligation ir insertion of a coil
Term
what is a reversed PDA?
Definition
due to the excessive volume overload of the lungs and pulmonary hypertension statr getting right to left shunt
Term
pulmonic stenosis?
Definition
narrowing of the pulmonry valve
due to fused or thickened valves
Valvular, subvalvular
Infundibular
Term
finding on clinical exam of pulmonic stenosis?
Definition
due to forward failure and the rhs CHF
:-
exercise intolerance, weakness, dyspnoea, weak puleses
will see RV hypetrohpy on xray too
Deep S wave
Term
VSD?
Definition
ventricular septal defect -so blood shunts left to right (high to low)

Over circulation of the lungs
often asymptomatic
LHS CHF
Term
T.o.F?
Definition
tetralogy of fallot
4 major issues
right ventricular hypertrophy
overriding right persistant aorta
VSD
pulmonic stenosis
Term
radiography - signs of t.o.f?
Definition
RV enlargement
hypovascularity of lungs
pulm A bulg
ECG - deep S wave
Term
treatment of T.o.F?
Definition
phlebotomy for polychythemia
Term
what are the direct clincial signs of aneamia?
Definition
lethargy
exercise intolerance
weakness
tachycardia
pale mms
increased resp rate
sollapse
Term
what are the two types of aneamia?
Definition
regenerative - new blood cells made 0 heamolytic or haemorrhagic
Non regenerative - eg Fe3+ deficiency - no red cells produced
Term
investigating aneamia?
Definition
PCV
total protein
smear
slide agglutination
reticulocyte count
Term
Normal PCV in a dog and cat?
Definition
37-55% in a dog
25-45% in a cat
Term
slide agglutination test - what is the purpose?
Definition
mis 2 drops of EDTA blood with a drop of saline and it will disperse any rouloux formation that may be present
Term
what are spherocytes and schistocytes?
Definition
soherocytes - early form RBC- no central pallor

Schistocytes - fragments of RBC
Term
reticulocytes count?
Definition
immature forms of RBC
slow to react - so will appear 3-4 days post assult
Term
non regenerative aneamia will have lots or few reticulocytes?
Definition
very few
Term
what are the types of regenerative anaemia?
Definition
Acute heamorrhagic
chronic heamorrhagic
haemolytic
Term
does the PCV indicate whether there has been blood loss?
Definition
no - it just tells you the numbers of rbc's present - heamorrhage looses all components of blood
Term
what are the usual features of acute heamorrhagic anaemia?
Definition
normal PCV
low/ish protein
few/no reticulocyte - BECAUSE THERE HASNT BEEN ENOUGH TIME FOR THE RETICULOCYTES TO REACT IN ACUTE SITUAION
Term
Usual features of chornic aneamia?
Definition
high reticulocytes and low/normal protein levels
- except when it it fe3+ deficincy anaemia if chronic blood loss externally no fe3+ recycling and so stores become depleted and would have low reticulocytes
Term
haemolytic anaemia findings?
Definition
reticulocytes present and normal prtien
Term
emergency management of acute haemorrhage?
Definition
calm,
fluids, blood transfusion if PCV is less than 10%
Term
do fluids increase the PCV?
Definition
NO!!
Term
does dehydration increase the PCV?
Definition
yes
Term
how dose it arise that a non regenertive aneamia often acconpanies chronic or inflammatory disease?
Definition
non regenerative becuase no reticulocytes are produced becuase inchornic inflammation - cytokines etc lead to the body shut down of Fe3+stores and any free iron is transfered to transferrin so that bacteria cannot use it to survive and multiply - but this also means that Fe is not available to make new RBC
cytokines also have an impact on EPO
Term
How does Fe3+ defeicncy anaemia arise and what do the RBCs look like?
Definition
due to external haemorrhage
cells will be microcytic and hypochromic
Confirm the diagnosis by meaasuring bone marrow Fe3+ levels
Term
aneamia f chronic renal failure - type and what it looks like and why it happens?
Definition
normochromic, normocytic, non regenerative anaemia
De to kidney failure - no/little EPO produce which usually stimulates the bone marrow to produce more cells
Uraemia of kidney disease also leads to damage of the cells and platelets so reduced survuval along with no/reduced production
Term
Treatment of aneamia of chronic renal disease?
Definition
human recombinanr EPO
iron supplementation
Term
FeLV assoc anaemia?
Definition
macrocytic non regenerative
Term
sites of bone marrow samping?
Definition
sternal, costochondral
iliac crest
femoral fossa
Term
pure red cell aplasia
causes?
Definition
often thought immune mediated
Term
describe haemostasis
Definition
1y - vessel contracts and narrows and platelets form a primary plug
Von willebrands factor is activated to allow for the platelet clumping
2y - when the fibrin stablisises the plug
Term
what inhouse tests can be used to assess clotting times?
Definition
platelet count
buccal mucosal bleeding time
activated clotting time

Labs - Activated prartial thrombo[lstin (APPT) TEST
Prothrobin time
Term
What should a dogs platelet count be?
Definition
200-500x10(9)
Term
how can you assess platelet function?
Definition
buccal mucosal bleeding time
clot retraction
Term
causes of thrombocytopeania?
Definition
failure of megakrosis
increased consumption
destruction
Term
what can be test internal clotting pathway?
Definition
APPT and activated clotting time
Term
what tests can be used to assess the extrinsic pathway?
Definition
PT time and PIVKA (proteins induced by vit K atagonism)
Term
what is fibrinolysis?
Definition
plasmin breaks down fibrin to fibrin degredation products - D dimer is the smallest of these
Term
Tests for fibrinolysis?
Definition
fibrinogen
d dimer levels
Fibrin degredation products
Term
Vit K antagonism?
treatment?
Definition
from eating coumarin derivatives like warfarin

Must inject vit K first and then give oral
Term
what is DIC and how do you diagnose it?
Definition
systemic coagulation and fibrinolysis
Diagnosed on aPPT and PT
Treat with heparin
Term
immune mediated aneamia - causes?
Definition
babesia
mycoplasma
autoimmune IMHA
Term
diagnosis of imha?
Definition
clinical signs
evidence of red blood cell regeneration
spherocytes
positive slide agglutination
Term
seconadary immune mediates anaemia is caused by what in dogs and cats?
Definition
cats - mycoplasma
Dogs - babesia, neoplasia, inflammatory disease
Term
How can you eleminate secondary cuases of IMHA?
Definition
chest xray
blood tests
abdominal ultrasound
Term
FIA?
Definition
feline infectious anaemia - caused by mycoplasma
transmitted by cat bites
Diagnosis on blood smear and PCR
Treatment is doxycycline for 6 weeks
and glucocorticoids to manage IMHA
Term
primary IMHA?= common incats or dogs mostly?
Definition
dogs
Term
treatment for IMHA?
Definition
transfusion - acute
immunotherapy - azothloprine
Term
what is a papule?
Definition
small hard erytheatous elevation accumulation of bacertia
Term
what confirms pyoderma on smear?
Definition
degenerate neutorphils and bacteria
Term
what three things underly folliculitis?
Definition
demidicosis
staphylococcus
dermatophytosis
Term
What contrast methiods are there to image the urogenital tract in dogs and bitches?
Definition
+ve retrograde urethrogram in bitches
postive urethrogram in
Both could have a double contrast cytogram
IVU - IV urography - not used widely
Term
what are the 3 phases following ingection after an IVU?
Definition
vascular
neohrogram
pyelogram
Term
why would a kidney have a hyperechoic cortex?
Definition
ethylene glycol poisoning
renal failure
neoplsia
Term
what chahges would you see with an IVU?
Definition
mass
cytstic change
hydronephrosis
Term
what is acoustic enhancement?
Definition
when you get increased echo amplitude returning distance from an object being imaged
Term
what does a double contrast stud consist of?
Definition
pneumocyystogram and contrast - so some air blown into the bladder which allows you to see the wall thickness and then some contrast which lines the muscose
Term
pneumocytsogram vs positive contrast studt - advantages?
Definition
pneumo - can assess the thickness of the wall and se the positiion of the bladder and the prostate
advadantage of the contrast is thaut you can assess the muscosal surface
Term
circumferential thickening of the bladder often indicates what?
Definition
cytitis
Term
what is a retrograde urethrogram?
Definition
done befire a double contrast
used in males more so than females
Term
how are calculi often seen in the bladder on ultasound?
Definition
hyperechoic with acoutitc shadow
Term
when carrying out a +ve retorigrade vaginogram - where is the preloaded catheter inserted to?
Definition
distal vagina
or vestibule and aim is dorsally
Term
what can be a tell tale sign of urethral neoplsia?
Definition
ragged rough muscosal interface with the contrast
Term
what is azotemia>
Definition
an abnormal increase in the urea and creatinint in the blood
Term
urea?
Definition
synth in the liver from break down of AAs
excreted thru the kidney
Term
creatinine?
Definition
from the breakdown of muscle
Constant rate of production
excreted unchanged
an increase in serum levels would be due to a decreased GFR
Term
causes of azotemia?
Definition
pre renal - issue with blood supply - inadequate perfusion

Renal - due to kidney disease

Post renal - blockage or ruptureof the urinary tract
Term
what is GFR?
Definition
glomerular filtration rate
Measure of the rate at which things are cleared throught the glomerulus
Defines the excretory finction
Term
what would reduce the GFR?
Definition
reduced perfusion
reduced kidney function
obstruction
Term
what use are urea and creatinine?
Definition
they can be used to assess kindey finction like GFR but in a less direct way
Term
what makes creatinine better for asssessing tge renal finction instead of urea?
Definition
it is produced at a constant rate and is freely filtered and not absorbed
Term
is creatinine sensitive to kidney failure?
Definition
no not until GFR is really low
Term
clincial signs of azotemia?
Definition
they are not really any apart fom the syndrome of uraemia caused by a state or azotemia and so clinical signs are often realted to the ureamia
Term
clinical signs of uraemia?
Definition
inappetance depression vommint, nausea, halitosis, stomatits
Term
a history of dysuria or stanguria is often assoc with what?
Definition
post renal
Term
what clinical signs are assoc with post renal azotemia?
Definition
free sub cut lfuid around the perineum
unable to pass a catheter
grossly enlarged bladder on palpation
Term
hypersthenuria?
Definition
very concentrated urine
will make youthink there is pre renal issue
Term
urine sediment - if ou saw crystals orhaematuria what would you think the cause?
Definition
crystals - will be a renal cause
haematuria - renal or post renal
Term
what are the values for the hyper/iso/hyposthenuria?
Definition
hyposthenuria- 1.000-1.007
iso - 1.008 - 1.012
hyper 1.033-1.055
Term
renal insufficiency, disease, failure
Definition
disease - damage or functional impairment
Insufficiency - functional impairment that is nt enough to cuase azotemia but will cause loss of renal finction

Failure 0 damage enough to cuase azotemia and urine concentrating ability of lost
Term
acute renal failure?
Definition
sudden often reversible reduction in the ability to clear things and metabilic finctions of the kidney
Term
causes of reduced renal perfusion?
Definition
dehydration, shock hypovolaemia, reduced CO and low BP
Term
clinical signs of acute renal failure?
Definition
vomiting, diarrhoea, halitosis, inappetant and depressed
Term
if in failure - what abnormalities would you see on biochem?
Definition
initial hyperkalaemia
hyperphosphataemia
hypercalcalaemia?
metabolic acidiosis
Term
what is the normla urine output?
Definition
1-2ml/kg/hr
>2ml/kg.hr is considered to be pokyuric
Term
addisonian patients are often simialr to acute renal failure patients - what clincopatholigcal signs will they have?
Definition
hyperk+
hyperphosphataemia
and minimally concentrated
pre renal azotemia
Term
treatment of acute renal failure?
Definition
hospitalise
hydration status
CVPmonitoring
reove the inciting problems and restore renal pressure
monitor elcetrolytes
Term
prevention of acute renal failure?
Definition
ID the risk factors
eg existing disease , dehydrated, sepsis
recdec CO
trauma
Hypoporteineamia
Term
what is chronic renal failure?
Definition
loss of renal function for a prolonged toime of more than 2 months
progressive and irreversible
Term
causes of CRF?
Definition
degenerative
developmental
metabolilc
neoplastic
infectious
idiopathic
immune mediated
iatrogenic
Term
degenerative causes of CRF?
Definition
chronic interstitial nephritis
renal infarcts
Term
metabolic causes of CRF?
Definition
hypercalcaemia
Term
pathophysiology of CRF?
Definition
cronic kidney disease leads to loss of nephrons and damage
1/3 loss means urine concentrating ability is lost
1/4 loss - means azotemia
further progression leads to uraemia
so you get dehydration, failure of vit D synth, failure of excretion of nitrogenous waste and failure of EPO prdcution
Term
why is CRF progressive?
Definition
becuase once it starts secondary processes are initiated and the contribute to the renal damage
Term
what secondary processes contribute to renal damage?
Definition
renal fibrosis
systemic hypertension
proteinuria
Term
presenting signs of CRF?
Definition
P/PD,
GIT signs - vomitnig and diarrhoea etc
depressed lethargic, inappetant, sudden onset blindess
dehydrated
Term
how do you go about investigating CRF?
Definition
ID presence of azotemia, ID if acute or chronic stage disease and id the underlying causes
Term
biochem of CRF?
Definition
hyperphospahemia
hyperkalaemia
meabolic acidosis
Term
why do you get hyperphps[phataemia with CRF?
Definition
becasue kidneys arethe 1y route of excretion
Term
why does CRF lead to 2y renal hyperparathyroidism?
Definition
becasue a reduced GFR leads to reduced PO4- excretion, and a redced calcitorl production so that leads to a reduced calcium level which stimualtes PTH sectrion from the PTHgland to oincrase the serum Ca2+ but this also increases serum po4-
Term
what sort of aneamia do you get with CRF?
Definition
due to the reduced EPO production there is a normohromic normocytic non reghenerative aneamia
so animal will be ltheragic
Term
management of vomiting and nausea assoc with CRF?
Definition
anti emetics - metoclopramide
H2 blockers - cimetidine
gastirc protectants - sucralfate
Term
contents of renal diets?
Definition
o=low fat
high energy
high quality reducded protein
postassium supplmentation
soluble finbre
Term
angiotensin receptor blockers?
Definition
licensed for the use in reducing proteinuria in cars
telamasartin
Term
what is acute on chonic renal failure
Definition
acute decompensation if CRF
Term
how do you class female incontinance?
Definition
sphincteric
abnormal storage
anatomic
Term
signalment of ectopic ureters?
Definition
12weeks old to 1year
can pass a normal stream but always have a wet bed and carpet etc
wet coat and inflammed oerineum
Term
diagnosis of ectopic ureters?
Definition
retrograde vaginogram
Term
when would you most likely see sphincter mech incontinance?
Definition
not speyed and less than 1year old
often incontinatn when sleeping or jumping
often have an intrapelvic bladder and a wide urethra
Term
treament for sphincter mech incontinance
Definition
alpha adrenergic agonist
phenylopromanaoline
Estriol
surgery - colosuspension
surgery - colo
Term
causes of urinary incontinance in males?
Definition
ectopic ureters
sphincter mech incontinance
prostate issues
atonic bladder
reflex dysenergia
Term
ectopic ureters in males
Definition
often asynptomatic - becuase they have such a long urethra - enters the prostate and causes dilation
lack of J shape
Term
what is reflex dysenergia?
Definition
when they go out to urinate and nothing happens then come in and flood the floor due to a failure in the relaxation of the sphincter and the detrusor contracts so the bladder stretchs adnd becomes atonic due to damage at the neuromuscular junction
Catherterise and keep bladder drained
Bethanecol
Term
sphincter mech incontinance in males?
Definition
same as females - 12wks old to 1year old
intrapelvic bladder
Treat with phenylprompanololamine and testosterone
Term
prostate incontinance?
Definition
due to inflammation- prostatitis, abscess
or an obstruction - cyst, abcess, neoplsia, paraprostatic cyst
Term
investigating prostatic issues?
Definition
prosatic wash or a biopsy
Term
BPH?
Definition
very common just a large symmetrical cyst with central urthra
do a retrograde urethrogram and a DCS
Term
what will a prostatic cyts look like on ultrasoudn?
Definition
large, non symmertirical, cavitations and floaters ub ut
Term
prostatic cancer?
Definition
may nto have an enlarged gland - may jsut have dystrophic mineralisation and hyperreflectivity
Term
paraprostatic cysts?
Definition
ddx - perineal hernia
thin mineralisation of the while outline solooks like an egg shell
no contrast leakage
may cause fecal staining
Term
treatment of BPH?
Definition
tardak or ypazonr
Term
causes of proteinuria?
Definition
pre renal - abnormal laod presented to kidney - kidney failure
Renal - inflam of the tract from below the kidney
post renal
Term
false -ve protein dipstick test?
Definition
if the urine is acidic
Term
investigation of proteinuria?
Definition
pre renal cause s- haem and biochem
renal cause s- urinalysis and imaging
post renal - sediment and culture
Term
urine protein to creatinine ratio?
Definition
used to quantify the disease progression and severity
Term
causes of renal proteinuria?
Definition
imflammation andglomerular and interstital disease
Term
urine inflammation?
Definition
excluded on the basis of hisotr, clincial exam and lack of sediment
Term
glomerular protien loss?
Definition
due to the fact that there is kidney damage s the remaining neprons are hyperfiltrating which leads to increased protein loss aka prtien loosing nephropathy
Term
what is glomerulonephritis?
Definition
when immune complexes are depositied in the glomerulus due to idiopathic cuases or antigenic causes
Term
clicial signs of protein loosing nephrooathy?
Definition
late stage - effusions and odeama
Term
what is pyelonephritis?
Definition
inflammation of the interstitium of the kidney due to bacterial infecion
- causes from an ascending infection of haematogenous spread
Term
signs of pyelonephritis?
Definition
pupd
vomiting
renal pain,
dehydration
pyrexia
Term
diagnosis of pyelonephritis?
Definition
haemturia
pyuria
hard to ddx from bacterial cystitis
Term
how do you ddx from bacterial cytitis and pyelonephritis?
Definition
pyelonephritis will have dilute urine whereas cystis wont
Term
ddx for cervical swellings?
Definition
thyroid carcinoma
pharyngeal stick injury
sialoceole
lymphadenopathy
inset bite
Term
which 3 ways can a pharyngeal stick go?
Definition
rostral
lateral
dorsal
Term
with a pharyngeal stick inhury = what clincial sugns would be seen if the oesophagus was involved?
Definition
dyspnoea
pneumomediastininum
subcut emphysema
Term
what is a sialoceaole
Definition
a defect in a polystomatic sublingual gland
spft painless swelling
not attached to underlying structures
honey coloured fluid
Term
which 3 regions may you find a sialoceole?
Definition
cervial, ranular and pharyngeal
Term
how do you cofirm if it is a sialoceole?
Definition
take an aspirate and do the drip trst
stringy
or sialography
Term
treatment of a sialoceole?
Definition
treat by diesecting down through the ducts and muscle to the gland and remving atleast 3 lobules of the polystomatic gland
and implant a drain
Term
thyroid carcinoma? clincial signs?
Definition
coughing
regurgitation
a firm mass ventrolalteral to the pharynx
attached to the underlying mucosae
Term
sialadenitis?
Definition
aka necrosis of salivary gland
pain and pyrexia
NSADIS antiobiotics and steroids
Term
ddx for imaging the GIT and seeing free gas?
Definition
pneumoperitoneum
recent surgery
GIT perforation
iatrogenic
Term
if the liver gets large - what happends to the stomach and the gastric axis?
Definition
stomach will move caudally and gastric axis roatation
Term
what happens to the gastric axis with microhepatomegally
Definition
gastric axis rotates craniallu
Term
what would you see when there is a small ointestinal obstruction??
Definition
single or a few dilated loops of intestine and may be thickened may or may not see the FB can use contrast
Term
what is ileus?
Definition
generalised SI dialtion
could be finctional - peritonitis, GDV, dsyautonomia
may be seen with A distal obstruction
Term
what is the gravel sign?
Definition
when there is a chronic partial SI obstruction
will see a cpollection of mineralised material immediately above the obstruction
Animal would have a history of persistant vomiting or something
Term
pros and cons of ultrasound?
Definition
pro's - major dx tool
good for soft tissue
safe and non invaseive and real time

Cons - need to be trained well to do it , poor bone and gas detaild
Term
diffue change to the liver?
Definition
hyperechoic - loose clarify of the portal vessles and could be due to hepatitis or stroids

Hypoechoic - due to congestion, acute inflammation, oedema
Term
git assessment using ultrasound what can you assess and what sort of thinsg may you see?
Definition
function
thickness - neoplsia or enteritis
obstruction - contents or intussusesption
Term
liner FB in the GIT would be seen as what on ultrasound?
Definition
like an accordian - lots of short sharp turns if loops of intestines - plicated
Term
signs of GI neoplasia on ultrasound?
Definition
loss of layering and irregular lumen
marled;ly thickened
Term
what will th epqncreas look like on u/s when pancreatitis?
Definition
oedematous, hypoechogenicwith surrounding peritonitis and free fluid
Term
common oesophageal diseases?
Definition
aquired megaoesophagus
vascular ring anomaly
foreign body
myasthenia gravis
reflux oesophagitis
Term
clinical signs of oesophageal disease?
Definition
regurgitation
dysphagia
hypersalivation
ravenous apetite
weight loss
Term
what are the three stages of barium aspiration and whast is the treatment?
Definition
bronchial
alveolar
nodes
if inhalation of barium occurs - just give antibiotics for 14 days
Term
megaoesophagus?
Definition
can be primary or secondary
primary is idiopathic and secondary is caused by -- myasthenia gravis, hypoadrenocortism, myopathy, toxins
Term
primary megaoesophagus?
Definition
no GI stumlants really hlp
acquired thing that comes about <6months old and only helps if feed form a height and have the right food consistnacy
Term
vascular ring anomalie?
Definition
congenital
from embryological development - persistant right aoritc arch
double aortic arch
treat with ligation
Term
preoperati e considerations for animals with oesophagelal FBs?
Post op care?
Definition
hydration
electrolytes
oesophagitis
acid base balance

Post op:- proton pump inhibitors, gastric protectants/h2 antagnosits
analgesics
Antibiotics
Term
complications of Fbs in the oesophagus?
Definition
stricture
stenosis
failure of retrieval when doing surgery
perforation
fistuale
Term
stricures of the oesophagus?
Definition
can be congenital or acquired or 2y to inflammation
Term
oesophagitis causes? tx?
Definition
pgastrointestinal reflux
chronic vomiting
caustic agents
physical agents
treat with baloon degeneration
Term
haital hernia?
Definition
occurs a lot in the brachycephalic breeds
congenital and acquired types
clincial signs - relfux oesophagitis, dyspnoea, regurgitation, body condition
Term
management of a hiatal hernia?
Definition
h2 blockers
metaclopramide
gastric protectants
then anatomic restitution
Term
GDV - typical signs seen on xray?
Definition
fundus is ventral and the pylorus is dorsal and a thickened wedge of tissue
Term
what does the GDV syndrome consist of?
Definition
gastric dilation
gastric dilation and volvulus
chronic dilation
Term
clincial signs of GDV
Definition
restless
aggitated
progressive abdominal distension
unproductive vomiting
hypovolemic shock - collapse, tachypnoea, tachycardia poor peripheral pulse, weakness and palor
PAIN
Term
intrinsic risk factors of GDV?
and extrinsic risk fctors that predispose to GDV?
Definition
intrinsic:- breed, age, narrow deep chest thin
Extrinsic :- big meals and gulping food
Term
pathogenesis of GDV?
Definition
failure of the gastooesophageal spincter mechanism so that cant erructate and so fills with air over time and strecthes the hepatic ligament
this plus impaired motility
Term
which way does a GDV commonly twist?
Definition
clockwise
Term
local effects of a GDV?
Definition
vascular ocmpromise - stomach hypoxia due to twist
leads to avulsion of the short axis gastirc arteries
Spleen too
Term
systemic effects of a GDV?
Definition
- reduced venous return due to the increased pressure on the vena cava and portal vein
- tissue perfusion poor :imcreased alctic acid and inflammatory mediators which could lead to myocardial ischaemia and stimach necrosis
Term
Diagnosis of GDV?
Definition
tympanic abdomen
right lateral xray - show a gas filled stomach
Term
stabilisation of GDV?
Definition
correct the hypovolaemic shcok - fluids
take bloods for PCV and total proteins
oxygen
antibiotics
Term
gastirc deflation?
Definition
by passing a gastic tube down or percutaneous gastrocentesis
Term
when would you have a reduced prognosis for a GDV patient?
Definition
if the color or thickness is bad looking
if there are tears or thorombi
Term
what are the methods of repositioning and attaching a GDV?
Definition
once in the correct orientation - gastropexy - belt and loop, incisional or circumconstal
Term
complications of GDV's post opp?
Definition
arrythmias#pneumonia
abnormal gastirc motility
gastric necrosis
Term
chronic GDV?
Definition
difinite entity
flatulance ad oerphagia
weight loss an intermiitant GDV
Term
medical management for chronic vomiting?
Definition
pro kinetics, anti emetics and antacids
Term
what can oesophagtitis cause?
Definition
hypersalivation
regurgitation
vomiting, anorexia
Term
difference between Si and LI diarrhoea?
Definition
Si-
large volume, look of urgency, malaena, no mucus, weightloss, normal freq

LI:- small amount frequesntly, fresh blood or mucus normal weihght mainatinaeed
Term
categories of causes of chronic diarrhoea?
Definition
Extra intestinal or intestinal
Term
Extra intestinal causes of chronic diarrhoea?
Definition
pancreatitis
hypoadrenocortism
liver disease
renal disease
Term
intestinal causes of chronic diarrhoea?
Definition
parasites
infectious
food responcive diarrhoea
neoplsai
IBD
ab Responcive diarrhoea
Term
investingations into chronic diarhoea?
Definition
fecal parasitology tests
bloods and urinalysis
antibiotic trial diagnositc imaging biopsy
Term
bacteriology and parasitlogy for chronic diarrhoea?
Definition
giardia
toxocarina
ucinaria
trichuris
FEC r an elisa for giradia or just a 5 day fenbendazole course
Term
what fe the markers for absorbtion?
Definition
Trypsin like indicator
cobalaminne - absorbed from the distal SI
folate absorbed from the prox SI
Term
idiopathic IBD?
Definition
diagnosi of exclusion after parasites, diet responcive tests unknown aetilogy due toa breakdown of normal immune tolerance
Term
IIBD therpay?
Definition
immunosuppressive therapy
also probiotics
kaolin and peridale
which aim to restore the fecal consistnacy
Term
+signs of acute pancreatitis?
Definition
vomiting anorexia depression, abdominal pain cranially,
diarrhoea
Term
how does the pancrease protect itself from autodigestion?
Definition
proteolyic enzymes are synth and stored as inactive zymogens and packed into granules . granules also have pancreatic secretory trypsin inhibitor so protect
these granules are then released into the ductal lumen and then exocytosed to the SI
Term
why does acute pancreatitis occur?
Definition
initating even is thought to be a premature activation of the zymogen granules in the pancrease and once activated in the parenchyma of the pancreas can get into the circulation

lysozymes fued with the zymogens and create a vaculose that birsts and releases active trypsin
Term
what are the result of acute pancreatits?
Definition
local inflam and necrosis
systemic disperssal of the enzymes
systemin inflamatory response
Term
causes of acute pancreatitis?
Definition
trauma, drugs, reduced pancreatic perfusion
duodenal billary relfux that causes irritation
Term
clinical pathology assoc with acute pancreatitis?
Definition
leukocytosis
increased liver enzymes
hypokalaemia
hypocalcaemia
increased amylase and lipase - not specific though
Term
tests for pancreatic function?
Definition
Trypsin like immunoreactivity - TLI
Snap test for lipase - good rule out test, does get false +ves
Lab lipase test
Term
signs of acute pancreatitis? - diagnostic imaging?
Definition
radiography - loss of conrast in the cranial abdomen
peritonitis
gastirc displacement
Ultrasound:- hypoechoic, enlarged
Term
Treatment of acute pancreatitis?
Definition
fluids, treat shockand supplement with KCl
Analgesia - not nsaids, - buprenorphone best
antiemetics - maropitant
gastric protectants
Food asap
Term
clincial signs of pancreatitis in cats?
Definition
dont vomit
pale, dehydrated and dyspnoea, hypothermic
Term
chronic pancreatitis?
Definition
more so in cats than in dogs but is an acute on chronic situation
Term
clinical signs of chronic pancreatitis?
Definition
Exocrine pancreatic insufficiency
OR Acute signs
OR intermittent
Term
Treatment of chronic pancreatitis?
Definition
as if it were acute :- fluids, analgesia, vit b12, appetite stimulants
Term
EPI?
Definition
exocrine pancreatic insufficiency - when the pancreas doesnt make enough enzymes
Term
causes of EPI
Definition
acinar atrophy
chroic pancreatitis
pancrastic neoplsia
Term
management of EPI?
Definition
enzyme supplementation
dietcobalamin
Term
failure of treatment in EPI?
Definition
not enough enzyme
Gastric acid effects
disturbed GI flora
diet change
concurrent SI disease
Term
pancreatic neoplsia?
Definition
not common
Treatment - chemo, surgery or radiation
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