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Carbohydrates
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171
Biology
Undergraduate 3
03/31/2015

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Term
Carbohydrates
Definition
Polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones, or substances that yield such compounds on hydrolysis
Term
Suffix -ose
Definition
Carbohydrate
Term
Monosaccharides
Definition
Contain a single polyhydroxy aldehyde or ketone unit (Saccharo is Greek for sugar)
Term
Disaccharides
Definition
Consist of two monosaccharide units linked together by a covalent bond
Term
Oligosaccharides
Definition
Contain from 3 to 10 monosaccharide units
Term
Polysaccharides
Definition
Contain very long chains of (100's-1,000's) of polysaccharide units, which may be either in straight or branched chains
Term
Largest source of glycogen storage
Definition
Liver
Term
Glyceraldehyde
Definition
C3H6O3 The simplest carb, exist in two isomeric forms that are mirror images of each other. It is also chiral
Term
Stereoisomers
Definition
Isomeric forms of a molecule that are mirror images of each other
Term
Chiral molecule
Definition
Molecule whose mirror image cannot be superimposed on it. (Due to "handedness")
Term
Enantiomers
Definition
The two mirror image forms of glyceraldehyde
Term
Levo or "L" form of a molecule
Definition
When the hydroxy (OH) group is on the left side
Term
Dextro or "D" form of a molecule
Definition
When the hydroxy (OH) group is on the right side
Term
Achiral molecules
Definition
Can be superimposed on their mirror images (drinking glasses, cubes)
Term
Chiral carbon
Definition
Any atom which is connected to four different groups (It will have two nonsuperimposable mirror images)
Term
Many organic compounds, including carbs, contain more than 1 what?
Definition
Chiral carbon
Term
A carbon can't be chiral if it has what attached to it?
Definition
A double bond
Term
Fischer Projections
Definition
Convenient way to represent mirror images in two dimensions. They have the carbonyl group near or at the top and the last achiral CH2OH at the bottom.
Term
Naming stereoisomers
Definition
Look at the chiral carbon farthest from the carbonyl group: if the hydroxy group points to the right when the carbonyl is "up" it;s the D-isomer, and when the hydroxy group points to the left, it is the L-isomer.
Term
Class of monosaccharide with 3 carbons
Definition
Triose
Term
Class of monosaccharide with 4 carbons
Definition
Tetrose
Term
Class of monosaccharide with 5 carbons
Definition
Pentose
Term
Class of monosaccharide with 6 carbons
Definition
Hexose
Term
Aldo-
Definition
Prefix that indicates the molecule is an aldehyde
Term
Keto-
Definition
Prefix that indicates the molecule is a ketone
Term
Aldehyde group will have what elements?
Definition
C=O-H
Term
Ketone group will have what elements?
Definition
CH2OH
Term
Memorize D-ribose Fischer Projection
Definition
Term
Memorize the Fischer Projections of D-glucose and D-galactose
Definition
Term
Memorize D-Fructose Fischer Projection
Definition
Term
Penultimate carbon
Definition
Last chiral carbon that is furthest from the functional group
Term
Pyranose ring
Definition
Formed when an alcochol group adds into the carbonyl group in a monosaccharide. Makes a stable cyclic hemiacetal or hemiketal.
Term
Beta Form of pyranose ring
Definition
Has the hydroxyl (OH) group above the plane. (B=belly up)
Term
Aplha form of pyranose ring
Definition
Has the hydroxyl (OH) group below the plane
Term
Anomers
Definition
Two new stereoisomers of pyranose that result from a carbon chain going into a cyclic formation
Term
Anomeric carbon
Definition
The new stereocenter or first chiral carbon
Term
Furanose ring
Definition
Formed when fructose closes on itself. Has 5 sides and looks like a pentagon
Term
The CH2OH (specifically OH) is always up for D-saccharides
Definition
Term
Aldehydes and ketones that have an OH group on the carbon next to the carbonyl group react with a basic solution of Cu2+ (Benedict's reagent) to form what?
Definition
A red-orange precipitate of copper(I) oxide (Cu2O)
Term
Benedict's reagent
Definition
A basic solution of Cu2+ that reacts with aldehydes and ketones that have an OH group on the carbon next to the carbonyl group to form a precipitate of copper (I) oxide
Term
Reducing sugars
Definition
Sugars that undergo a reaction with Cu2+ to form an oxidation production and copper (I) oxide (Cu2O)
Term
Reducing sugar reaction
Definition
Reducing sugar + Cu2+ --> oxidation product + Cu20
Term
Be able to identify the important monosaccharides
Definition
Term
Beta D-glucose
Definition
Known as dextrose and blood sugar. Metabolized by the body for energy
Term
Beta D-fructose
Definition
Known as levulose and fruit sugar. Sweetest of the monosaccharides. Used to sweeten foods
Term
Beta D-ribose
Definition
Forms the backbone of ribonucleic acid (RNA)
Term
Beta D-galactose
Definition
Incorporated with glucose into lactose
Term
Beta D-deoxyribose
Definition
Forms the sugar backbone of deoxyribosenucleic acid (DNA)
Term
Disaccharides
Definition
Two monosaccharides linked together through a glycosidic linkage
Term
Be able to distinguish between 1-4 bond and 1-6 bond
Definition
In a 1-4 bond the monosaccharides will be next to each other
In a 1-6 bond the monosaccharides will appear to be on top of each other
Number the carbon in the ring from left to right.
Term
Lactose is composed of what?
Definition
A Beta D-galactose molecule linked to an Alpha D-glucose molecule.
Term
Lactose has what type of glycosidic linkage?
Definition
Beta(1-->4) glycosidic linkage
Term
Lactose
Definition
Known as milk sugar. It is digested by the enzyme lactase
Term
Sucrose is composed of what?
Definition
Alpha-D-glucose (a hexose) and Beta D-fructose (a pentose)
Term
Sucrose has what type of glycosidic linkage?
Definition
Alpha-1 --> Beta-2 glycosidic linkage
Term
Sucrose
Definition
Known as table sugar. Not a reducing sugar because both anomeric carbons of glucose and fructose are tied together in the glycosidic linkage; thus neither ring can open. Found in sugar cane, sugar beets, maple syrup
Term
Invert sugar
Definition
A flavoring agent produced by the hydrolysis of sucrose under acidic conditions, which breaks it apart into glucose and fructose
Term
Oligosaccharides
Definition
Contain from 3 to 10 monosaccharide units
Term
Polysaccharides
Definition
Contain hundreds or thousands of carbohydrate units
Term
Why are polysaccharides not reducing sugars?
Definition
Since the anomeric carbons are connected through glycosidic linkages
Term
What are three kinds of polysaccharides which are all polymers of glucose?
Definition
Starch, glycogen and cellulose
Term
Starch
Definition
A polymer consisting of D-glucose units
Term
Starches and other glucose polymers have what relationship with water?
Definition
They are insoluble in water because of the high molecular weight. They may form thick colloidal suspensions with water
Term
All starch consists of long, unbranched chains of what?
Definition
Glucose connected by Alpha (1->4) glycosidic linkages
Term
What are the two forms of starch?
Definition
Amylose
Amylopectin
Term
Amylose
Definition
Consists of long, unbranched chains of glucose (1000-2000 molecules) connected by Alpha (1->4) glycosidic linkages
Term
Amylose forms what? Which can do what to iodine?
Definition
Amylose can form helices (coils) which can trap molecules of iodine forming a deep blue-purple color.
Term
What is a test for the presence of starch?
Definition
Iodine test
Term
Amylopectin
Definition
Long chains of glucose (up to 10^15 molecules) connected by Alpha (1->6) glycosidic linkages, with Alpha (1->6) branches every 24 to 30 glucose units along the chain
Term
The majority of starch in plants is in the form of what?
Definition
Amylopectin (80-90%)
Term
Alpha (1->4) glycosidic linkages cause
Definition
Long chains
Term
Alpha (1->6) glycosidic linkages cause
Definition
Branch points
Term
Glycogen
Definition
Known as animal starch. Structurally similar to amylopectin, containing both Alpha (1->4) glycosidic linkages and Alpha (1->6) glycosidic linkages (branch points)
Term
Glyocgen is even more highly branched than amylopectin, containing how many branches?
Definition
Glycogen has branches 8 to 12 glucose units
Term
What builds up glycogen?
Definition
Insulin
Term
What breaks down glycogen?
Definition
Glucagon
Term
Cellular Respiration
Definition
Transformation of chemical energy in food into chemical energy cells can use: ATP
C6H12O6 +6O2 -> 6O2 + 6H2O
Term
Glycolysis
Definition
Series of reactions which break 6-carbon glucose into two 3-carbon pyruvate molecules
Term
Where does glycolysis begin?
Definition
Inside the cytoplasm of cells
Term
Glycolysis begins with what step?
Definition
Glucose being phosphorlyated by hexokinase and therefore changing into glucose-6-phosphate. Requires the breakdown of one ATP molecule (ATP->ADP)
Term
Glucose-6-phosphate has two fates
Definition
Continue on with glycolysis or it can be used in the Embden Meyerhoff pathway
Term
Kinases phosphorylated molecules, but require what cofactor?
Definition
Mg
Term
In the last step of glycolysis what happens?
Definition
Phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) is acted on by pyrivate kinase to produce pyruvate. This step creates ATP (ADP->ATP)
Term
Glycolysis requires what how much ATP for every one glucose?
Definition
2
Term
Glycolysis produces how many ATP molecules for every one glucose?
Definition
4
Term
Glycolysis yields a net gain of how much ATP for every one glucose
Definition
2
Term
Glycolysis yields how much NADH per glucose molecule?
Definition
2
Term
What are the two fates of pyruvate after glycolysis?
Definition
1. Anaerobic cellular respiration (Fermention) which occurs in the cytoplasm
2. Aerobic cellular respiration (Kreb's cycle and Electron transport chain) which occurs in the mitochondria
Term
Anaerobic cellular respiration results in
Definition
No more ATP
Used only to regenerate NAD+ so it can work in glycolysis
Term
End products of anaerobic cellular respiration
Definition
Ethanol and CO2 (in fungi)
Lactic acid (in muscles)
Term
Kreb's Cycle
Definition
Aerobic cellular respiration that completes the breakdown of glucose
Breaks down pyruvate and convert it to CO2 and H2O.
Term
How much ATP is produced during the Kreb's cycle?
Definition
2 molecules
Term
Preparatory reaction for Kreb's cycle
Definition
Prior to the start if the Kreb's cycle Pyruvate must be converted to Acetyl-CoA
Term
Electron Transport Chain
Definition
High energy electrons to push hydrogen ions out of the mitochondroa creates a conc gradient. Hydrogens diffuse back into cell via ATP sythnase complex. allowing for oxidative phosphorylation and O2 serving as a terminal electron acceptor and becoming water.
Term
Purpose of the hexose monophosphate shunt
Definition
Anabolic pathway that
creates NADPH
Creates a pentose sugar from glucose-6-phosphate
Term
Oxidative phase of the hexose monophosphate shunt
Definition
Generates NADPH
Term
Non-oxidative phase of the hexose monophosphate shunt
Definition
Generates pentose
Term
Hexose monophosphate shunt produces how many NADPH's per glucose-6-phosphate?
Definition
2
Term
Glucose 6 phosphate is acted on by what enzyme in the first step of the hexose monophosphate shunt
Definition
Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase
Term
What is the end product of the hexose monophosphate shunt?
Definition
Ribulose-5-phosphate
Term
What is the rate limiting step of the hexose monophosphate shunt?
Definition
Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase
Term
Basic hexose monophosphate shunt explanation
Definition
Glutathione reduces harmful oxidants and converts them into water. Because of this process, glutathione itself becomes oxidized. NADPH needs to act as glutathione reductase to help glutathione return to its normal reduced state
Term
Sugar shuffling stage of the hexose monophosphate shunt
Definition
Enzymatically driven way of converting Ribulose-5-phosphate into other sugars.
Term
Glycogenolysis
Definition
Cleavage of glycogen into individual glucose units
Glycogen is cleaved at the non-reducing end to create glucose-1-phosphophate which is then converted to glucose-6-phosphate and has 3 seprate fates
Term
Glucose acted on by hexokinase creates what?
Definition
Glucose-6-phosphate
Term
Glycogenesis
Definition
Build up of glucose
Enzyme driven process that begins with glucose-1-phosphate and forms UDP-glucose which is added together by glycoge synthase causing chain elongation. Glycogen branching enzyme then causes branching
Term
Cori cycle (Lactic acid cycle)
Definition
Involves cycling lactate from muscular anaerobic metabolism to glucose for recycling
Term
Muscles deposit lactate which is then sent to the liver and
Definition
Recycled into glucose which is used by the muscles
Term
Gluconeogenesis
Definition
Creation of glucose from non carb sources
Term
Blood glucose usage
Definition
Liver and msucles store glycogen
Term
Carbohydrate catabolism for dietary carbs. Dietary carbs are broken down how?
Definition
Breaks down via mouth and salivary amylase (Breaks down amylose/starch) into dextrins/maltose
Term
Carbohydrate catabolism for dietary carbs. Dextrins/Maltose is broken down how?
Definition
Stomach/intestines combined with pancreatic amylase into monosaccharides
Term
Carbohydrate catabolism for dietary carbs. Monosaccharides are broken down how?
Definition
They are broken down by absorption into the intestinal mucosa and then delivered to the liver
Term
Fates of blood glucose
Definition
Direct energy usage by cells
Glucose storage
Formation of keto-acids, amino acids or lipids
Term
Glycogen is stored where?
Definition
Glycozones
Term
Glucose uptake into cells is mediated by what? What are two types of cells that don't need ____ to perform glucose uptake?
Definition
Insulin
Brain cells and circulating blood cells
Term
(Insulin action) Cells have a lipid membrane that is not permeable to what?
Definition
Glucose
Term
Mechanism of insulin action
Definition
Insulin binds with the insulin receptor
Causes a signal for GLUT to go to membrane and build channels
Glucose passes through channels
Once enough glucose has passed thru, the channels break down and GLUT moves back into the intracellular fluid
Term
Organs involved in glucose regulation
Definition
Liver
Pancreas
Anterior pituitary gland
Adrenal gland
Thyroid gland
Term
Pancreas
Definition
Releases insulin (decreased blood glucose) and glucagon (increases blood glucose)
Term
Anterior pituitary gland
Definition
Releases hormones that help with blood glucose maintenance
Term
Adrenal gland
Definition
Releases cortisol that plays a role in glucose metabolism
Term
Thyroid gland
Definition
Reduces thyroid hormone. Glucose maintenance are a secondary function of the hormone.
Term
Hypoglycemia
Definition
Glucose below 60 ish
Term
What part of the body detects blood glucose concentration?
Definition
Clusters of cells within the pancreas known as islets.
Term
Glucagon is excreted from what type of cell?
Definition
Alpha cells of the pancreas
Term
Glucagon
Definition
Hormone that binds with hepatic cells to signal the increased production of enzymes that break down glycogen and release glucose into the blood
Term
Increase in glucagon will cause
Definition
Glycogenolysis
Gluconeogenesis
Breakdown of fatty acids and proteins
(This causes glucose levels to rise to normal)
Term
How does the body respond to hypoglycemia?
Definition
The pancreas responds to low glucose by increasing the stimulation of glucagon
Term
How does the body respond to hyperglycemia?
Definition
Pancreas responds by increasing insulin excretion
Term
Insulin is excreted from
Definition
Beta cells of the pancreas
Term
Increase in insulin will cause
Definition
Glucose uptake by cells
Glycogenesis
(Glucose levels will fall to normal)
Term
Insulin level is controlled by
Definition
Blood glucose level
Amino acids (when increased the insulin will increase gluconeogenesis)
Term
Insulin release from the pancreas process
Definition
Glucose is taken into the cells through GLUT 2 when insulin is not present. The glucose is converted to ATP in the cell which turns off a potassium channel. Change in potassium causes depolarization which opens up a Calcium channel. Calcium increase in the cell causes the release of insulin.
Term
GLUT 1
Definition
Found on bloos cells and at the blood brain barrier
Term
GLUT 2
Definition
Absorbs it in the small intestine and allows it to enter small intestinal epithelial cells, liver cells and pancreatic beta cells
Term
GLUT 3
Definition
Found in neurons
Term
GLUT 4
Definition
Found in adipose tissue and muscles
Term
Glucose tranport proteins are glut 1-5. Which protein is insulin dependent? What tissues are insulin dependent?
Definition
GLUT 4
Brain, RBC's and WBC's
Term
Epinephrine
Definition
Acts as antagonist to insulin (inhibits insulin secretion)
Term
Cortisol
Definition
Acts as antagonist to insulin by increasing blood glucose, promoting gluconeogenesis, glycogenolysis and lipolysis and by inhibiting the entry of glucose into the cells
Term
Growth hormone (GH) and Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) are insulin-like growth factors (IGF's) that do what?
Definition
Act as an antogonist to insulin
Term
Fed state metabolism
Definition
When we are fed we have an increased plasma glucose which slows down alpha pancreatic cells and increases beta pancreatic cells which increases insulin that travels to the liver and increases glycolysis. glycogenesis and lipogenesis which decreases blood glucose
Term
Alpha pancreatic cells inhibit the release of what?
Definition
Glucagon
Term
Fasting state metabolism
Definition
Liver becomes a powerhouse for gluconeogenesis. Fueled by lactate and pyruvate that are the bi-products of glycogen. Fatty acids get broken down into ketones.
Term
Hyperglycemia
Definition
Fasting blood glucose is above a 110mg/dL
Term
Immediate and long term physiological effects of hyperglecemia
Definition
Immediate- Increased extracellular osmotic pressure, dehydration and acidosis
Long term- Glycosylated hemoglobin
Term
Criteria for the diagnosis of Diabetes Mellitus
Definition
Random plasma glucose > or = to 200mg/dL
Fasting plasma glucose > or = to 126mg/dL
2-hr postload glucose > or = to 200mg/dl during an oral glucose tolerance test
Hemoglobin A1C > or = to 6.5%
Term
Diabetes Mellitus
Definition
Metabolic disease characterized by hyperglycemia
Term
What are the two biggest symptoms of Diabetes Mellitus?
Definition
Increased urine
Increased thirst
Term
Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus
Definition
Referred to as juvenille diabetes or insulin dependent Diabetes Mellitus. Caused by autoimmune-mediated insulin deficiency
Term
Pathophysiology of Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus
Definition
Auto-antibodies target Beta cells of pancreas (or insulin itself) which leads to a low insulin level and therefore a high blood glucose
Term
Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus
Definition
Non-insulin dependent Diabetes Mellitus or insulin resistant diabetes mellitus. Typically an adult onset disease
Term
Pathophysiology of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus
Definition
Cells develop a reduced sensitivity to insulin and eventually stop responding to insulin which creates an increased blood glucose
Term
Risk factors of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus
Definition
Obesity
Lack of exercise
Diet
Genetics
Drugs
Increase in GH and cortisol
Term
Common complication of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus
Definition
Patients don't form diabetic acoketosis and go into a hyperosmotic coma. Also there is an incerased risk for developing micro/macro vascular compications
Term
Gestational Diabetes Meullitus
Definition
Hormonal and metabolic changes create abnormal glucose concentrations during pregnany. Makes mothers have an increased risk for Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus and babies have an increased risk for respiratory complications and hypoglycemia after birth
Term
Babies need to have what type of glucose level to be considered hypoglycemic
Definition
30mg/dL
Term
Glucagon is released when?
Definition
When plasma glucose levels are below 60 mg/dL to inhibit insulin
Term
Epinephrine, cortisol and growth hormone are released from the adrenal gland when? and to do what?
Definition
Released when plasma glucose levels are below 60 mg/dL to increase glucose metabolism and inhibit insulin
Term
Hypoglycemia treatment
Definition
Small frequent meals that are low in carbs and high in protein
Term
Three categories hypoglycemia are
Definition
Induced (Caused by administration of meds or exogenous compound, alcohol)
Fasting (Caused by inability of body to produce glucose during fasting periods)
Reactive (Excessive insulin release after a meal
Term
Serum or plasma fasting blood glucose ref range
Definition
80-100mg/dL
Term
Whole blood blood glucose ref range
Definition
70-90mg/dL
Term
Stability of blood glucose test
Definition
Serum or plasma must be run within 1 hour.
Sodium fluoride inhibits glycolysis and prolong sample integrity
Term
Trindler reaction is used for
Definition
Blood and CSF. Urine has too many interfering substances and because of this it is not the reference method.
Term
Trindler reaction
Definition
Glucose oxidation reaction in which glucose plus oxygen and water, in the presence of glucose oxidase form gluconic acid and hydrogen peroxide.
Also hydrogen peroxide plus chromagen, in the presence of peroxidase, forms oxidized chromagen plus water
Term
Interfering substances of the Trindler reaction include
Definition
Ascorbic acid
Bilirubin
Uic acid
Term
Hexokinase methodology
Definition
Glucose + ATP in the presence of hexokinase yields glucose-6-phosphate and ADP
Also Glucose-6-phosphate in the presence of G6PD yields NADPH + H+ 6-phosphogluconate
Term
NADPH can be directly measured at what wavelength?
Definition
340nm
Term
Hexokinase methodology is used for?
Definition
Measuring blood, urine and CSF. It has very few interfering substances and because of this it is considered to be the reference method.
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