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Brain and Behavior 2: Emerson College
Test 2
122
Science
Undergraduate 4
05/03/2011

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Cards

Term
2 Key Parts of the Definition of Aphasia
Definition

1) Loss of Impairment: ACQUIRED disorder, normal function altered by damage to brain, NOT same as failure to develop normal language

 

2) Language: Semantic and Syntactic functions

Term
Franz Joseph Gall
Definition
Involved in phrenology. Localization of mental function
Term
Paul Broca
Definition

-Focal brain damage associated with disordered speech/language

-Aphasia as a specific brain disorder was born

Term
Carl Wernicke
Definition

-Presents cases of language comprehension deficits in relation to brain damage

-Leads to models of brain-damage mechanisms

Term
Norma Geschwind
Definition

-Refined descriptions of language localization

-Pinpointed likely circuits in brain that would account for aphasic symptoms

Term
Syndomes of aphasia based on...
Definition

1) Type of language manisfestation

2) Neuroanatomic locus

Term
Broca's Aphasia
Definition

-Nonfluent aphasic output

-Speech labored and telographic; very few words

-Content words, devoid of grammatical morphemes

-Relatively good language comprehension

-Problem with analyzing and producing syntax, but NOT a motor problem

-damage in LEFT frontal lobe

Term
Wernicke's Aphasia
Definition

-Verbal output fluent but full of neologisms and paraphasias

-Disturbance in comprehension

-Disorder of repitition

-In some, ability to comprehend spoken language worse than ability to comprehend written language

-Nonsense words

-Good grammatical morphemes

-Superior temporal lobe in LEFT hemisphere

Term
Conduction Aphasia
Definition

-Fluent, but paraphasic output

-Relatively normal comprehension of speech

-Severe breakdown in repetition

-Naming abnormal

-Involves white matter beneath supramarginal gyrus

-Legion may possibly disconnect intact language comprehension from equally intact motor speech area

Term
Other Types of Aphasia
Definition

-Global Aphasia

-Transcortical motor

-Supplementary motor

-Sensory

-Mixed

Term
Anomic Aphasia
Definition

-Word finding difficulties

-Fluent output, little or no paraphasia, good comprehension, repetition

-From almost anywhere in language area and some right hemisphere lesions

Term
Aphemia
Definition

-Pure word dumbness

-Slow but grammatically intact verbal output

-"foreign accent syndrome" (disorder of rhythm, inflection, articulation characteristic of another language)

Term
Pure Word Deafness
Definition

-Problem with reception of spoken language

-Cannot understand spoken language and cannot repeat

-Hearing is fine; can identify non-speech sounds

Term
Assessment of Aphasia
Definition

-Test batteries

-Interrelated language tests

-Tests that probe single language function such as naming: Boston Naming Test, Word Fluency Test

Term
Non-Fluent
Definition
Sparse output
Term
Dysprosody
Definition
Abnormal rhythm, melody, inflection, timbre
Term
Agrammation
Definition
USe of substansive, meaningful words with relative dearth of syntactically significant functor words
Term
Paraphasia
Definition
Substitution of phonemes or words
Term
Comprehending Speech and Understanding Speech
Definition

Comprehending: Speech sounds analyzed for physical properties in the auditory sensory area of temporal lobe

Understanding: Wernicke's area transforms basic meaning to be conveyed into a neural representation of a sequence of words. Representation sent to Broca's to be converted into a form that can be uttered. Sent to primary motor area of the forebrain which controls the muscles of speech

Term
Language
Definition

-Split brain syndrome

-useful ways of thinking of hierarchies in the structure of language

-reading

-other language phenomena

Term
Hierarchy of Language
Definition

1) Top level: sentence itself

2) Sentence broken down into phrases

3) Phrases broken down into words or morphemes

4) Words/morphemes broken down into elementary vowel and consonant sounds called phonemes

Term
Reading: Interactive-Activation Model
Definition

-Suggested by Rumelhart and McClelland

-activation of particular lexical elements occurs at multiple levels

-activity at each level is interactive

-3 types of processing after visual input: feature, letter and word

-Information at each level is represented separately in memory

-Information passes from one level to the other bi-directionally

-Processing top-down AND bottom-up

Term
Neural Connections and Plasticity
Definition

-Neurons in auditory cortex become specialized to tune into certain sounds

-more ambiguous sounds have more neurons devoted to their perception

-Neuron representation devoted to clear sounds shrink over time with experience

-neurons no longer needed for one sound category can be used for another

 

Term
R and L in English and Japanese
Definition

English: sounds are ambiguous, so more cells used to distinguish between sounds

Japanese: less ambiguous, so less cells used

Term
Memory
Definition
Sensory, short term, long term
Term
Short term memory
Definition

-Holds memory for a few seconds

-Generally not necessary to intentionally transfer information to STM

-Controlled processes may be applied to info, such as rehearsing and chunking

 

Term
Long Term Memory
Definition

-Holds information indefinitely

-Not more durable version of STM

-Differs from STM because of the form in which info is stored in memory, way in which info is recalled, reasons that forgetting occurs, and physical location of functions in brain

Term
Types of Long-Term Memory
Definition

Procedural: memory for skills and procedures, (how to ride a bike, kiss, eat, etc.)

 

Semantic: memory for meaning of something, (what "pudding" or "peace of mind" mean, etc.)

 

Episodic: stores info about certain things that happened at certain times and places. Less well stored than procedural and semantic

Term
Working Memory
Definition

-Store information while working on it.

-Visuospatial Sketchpad: stores visual information

-Phonological Loop: stores auditory information independent of visual memory

-Central Executive: directs attention toward one stimulus or another

 

-Stored by prefrontal cortex.

Term
Deficient Memory: Amnesia
Definition

-Memory depends on effective functioning of particular structures of the brain

-Functions can be stored by multiple structures or regions

-Most famous case: H.M. who underwent surgery to cure epilepsy. Got moderate retrograde amnesia and couldn't remember events after. Could define common words but not infrequently used words

 

Term
Hippocampus
Definition

-Critical role in declarative, explicit memory.

-Role in spatial memory.

-Release of adrenal hormones

-Integration and consolidation of separate sensory information. Transfer of newly synthesized information into long-term structures

Term
Cerebral cortex, amygdala and basal ganglia in memory
Definition

Cerebral Cortex: long term storage of information

Amygdala: Memory consolidation where emotional experience is involved

Basal Ganglia: Primary structure for procedural knowledge

Term
Emotion and Memory
Definition

-Emotional arousal does not always lead to poor memory. Can sometimes improve memory.

-Memory of intensively negative events tend to be vivid but confused and less organized

-Flashbulb memories: of specific negative moments. often distorted.

Term
Stages of Memory and the Brain:
Definition
When you recall long-term memory, frontal lobes involved. Events that increase negative emotional arousal activate amygdala and improve recall. Also produces cortisol, which inhibits hippocampus.
Term
Hebbian Conditioning
Definition

-Important factor in neural changes during learning

-More synapse is used, more neural pathway is facilitated.

-Supported by Kandel. Classical conditioning: after, amount of neurotransmitter increased.

 

Term
Concussion
Definition

-Usually reversible

-No structural damage

-Immediate

Term
Contusion
Definition

-More damaging

-Bruising

-noticeable loss of function

Term
Hematoma
Definition

-Collection of blood in one or several locations of the brain

-may be between brain covering and skull (epidural hematoma)

-May occur between brain membrane and brain (subdural hematoma)

Term
Differential Mobility of Head and Brain
Definition

-brain injuries relate to physical force

-blunt object to stationary head or hard surface that stops moving head

-nonpenetrating or blunt head injuries

-temporary loss of consciousness

-brain can suffer gross damage

-small object can penetrate

-whiplash could throw head in different directions

Term
Diffuse brain injury or Diffuse Axonal Injury
Definition

Non-fatal forms: diffuse axonal injury, diffuse hypoxic/anoxic/ischemic injury and diffuse swelling

 

Fatal: Diffuse vascular injury

 

Result from concussion or whiplash

Term
Types of Damage in TBI:
Definition

1) Bruising (bleeding) blood vessels tear, blood pools and presses on sensitive tissue, tissue dies off and critical parts of brain stop working


2) Tearing- tiny tears occur. Microscopic.


3) Swelling- body realizes brain has been injured. Extra help sent to heal but little room in skull. Pressure builds up and damages parts of brain. Critical parts stop working.


4) Destruction of tissue: gunshot wound, etc.

 

5) Skull fractures: rough measure of impact sustained.

Term
Mechanisms of Brain Injury
Definition

-brain comes into contact with bony parts of inner surface of skull

-Common sites of cerebral contusions are frontal and temporal lobes.

-"Coup-Contrecoup Injuries" Bruising of surface of brain beneath point of impact (coup lesion). Opposite side of point of impact are contrecoup. relative sparing of occipital lobes.

Term
Penetrating Wounds of the Head
Definition

(missles and fragments)

 

Tangenital Injuries: scalp lacerations, depressed skull fractures, and meningeal and cerebral lacerations

 

Penetrating: in-driven metal particles, hair, skin and bone fragments

 

Through-and-Through: entry and exit

 

If brain penetrated at lower end of brainstem, death instantaneous. If vital centers untouched, immediate problems are intercranial bleeding and pressure.

Term
Recovery after Diffuse Axonal Injury
Definition

-Initially speculated

-Difficult to study

Term
Rancho Los Amigos Levels of Cognitive Functioning
Definition

-Used to track individual's progress in recovery. 8 levels

 

1) No Response

2) Generalized: responses limited and same regardles of stimuli presented.

3) Localized: Respond specifically but inconsistently to stimulus.

4) Confused/Agitated: Heightened state of activity with severely decreased ability to process information.

Term
Problems Following Injury to Frontal Lobes
Definition
Paralysis, inability to plan sequences of complex movements, loss of flexibilty in thinking, loss of spontaneity in conversation with others, perseveration, inability to focus on a task, mood changes, changes in behavior and personality, difficulty with problem solving, Broca's aphasia
Term
Problems Following Injury to Parietal Lobes
Definition
Inability to attend to more than one object at a time, anomia, agraphia, alexia, difficulty drawing objects, difficulty distinguishing right from left, difficulty with mathematics, lack of awareness of certain parts of body or space, inability to focus attention, problems with hand/eye coordination
Term
Problems following injury to occipital lobes
Definition
defects in vision, difficulty with locating objects in environment, difficulty in distinguishing between colors, hallucinations, inaccurately seeking objects, inabilty to recognize words, difficulty recognizing drawn objects, movement agnosia, difficulties with reading and writing
Term
Problems following injury to temporal lobes
Definition
Difficulty recognizing faces, Wernicke's aphasia, disturbance to seeing and hearing, difficulty with identification of and verbalization about objects, short-term memory loss, inteference with long-term memory, increased or decreased interest in sexual behavior, bad categorization, persistent talking, aggressive behavior
Term
Problems following injury to brainstem
Definition
Decreased vital capacity in breathing, dysphagia, difficulty with organizing and perceiving the environment, problems with balance and movement, dizziness and nausea, sleeping difficulties
Term

Problems following injury to cerebellum

 

Definition
Loss of ability to coordinate fine movements, loss of ability to walk, inability to reach out and grab objects, tremors, dizziness, slurred speech, inability to make rapid movements
Term
Rate of neuron firing during seizures
Definition
Can be 500 times a second, usually 80 during non seizure activity
Term
Epilepsy may develop because of...(3)
Definition
Abnormality in brain wiring, imbalance of neurotransmitters, combination of both
Term
Kindling
Definition
Process by which the threshold to evoke action potential in the next neuron is progressively lowered without eliciting a convulsion. Can result in development of spontaneous seizures. Within limbic system, can cause long-lasting synaptic potentiation.
Term
Temporal Lobe Epilepsy
Definition

-Most common syndrome with partial seizures

-Often associated with auras

-Usually develops in childhood

-Hippocampus may shrink

-Tied to limbic system

Term
Frontal Lobe Epilepsy
Definition
Cluster of short seizures with sudden onset and termination, symptoms depend on where in frontal lobe seizure occurs
Term
Occipital Lobe Epilepsy
Definition
Visual hallucinations, rapid eye blinking, or other eye-related symptoms.
Term
Parietal Lobe Epilepsy
Definition
Symptoms resemble other types of epilepsy. Seizures tend to spread to other areas of the brain.
Term
Photosensitive Epilepsy
Definition

-Seizures provoked by flickering lights

-More females than males

 

Term
Interictal characteristics of temporal lobe epilepsy (3 groups)
Definition

1: Emotionality, manic tendencies, depression, humorlessness

2: altered sexuality, hostility, anger, aggression

3: Religiosity, nascent philosophical interest, augmented sense of personal destiny, dependence, passivity, paranoia, moralism, guilt, obsessionalism, circumstantiality, viscosity, hypergraphia

Term
Triad of features in temporo-limbic epilepsy
Definition
Hypergraphia, hyposexuality, hyper-religiosity
Term
Simplified Dimenstions of Mood
Definition
Depression at one end, elation on the other
Term
Distinctions between depression and anxiety
Definition

-Depression more likely to entail absence of pleasure

-Depression has a sense of hopelessness

-Depression associated with disengagement

-Depressed person feels that all is lost

-Sense of worthlessness and hopelessness

Term
Two Classes of Depressive Disorders
Definition

1) Major Depression: very severe symptoms, no remission for at least 2 weeks

 

2) Dysthmia: less severe symptoms, at least 2 years. Can have bouts of major depresson, called double depression.

Term
3 Basis Theories of Depression
Definition
Biological, Situational, Cognitive
Term
Biological Theory of Depression
Definition

Monoamine Approach: Depression results from too little activity in brain synapses using monoamine transmitters. (Dopamine, serotonin and norepinephrine). Prozac acts specifically with serotonin

Hereditary

Term
4 Types of Antidepressant Drugs
Definition

1) Tricyclics (make NTs stay in synapse for a longer time)

2) Monoamine Oxidase Inhibitors (Blocks MAO, more NTs available for release)

3) SSRI (similar to tricyclics but just for serotonin)

4) Atypical Antidepressants (Antidepressive effects, mild side effects)

Term
Bipolar Disorder
Definition

-2 Types: Bipolar (severe) and Cyclothymia (less severe)

-High incidence of cyclothymia among artists and other creative types of people

 

Term
Treatments for Bipolar Disorder
Definition
Lithium (Bipolar I) and Valproic Acid (Bipolar 2)
Term
Schizophrenia
Definition
1) Serious, long-lasting decline in ability to work, care for self and connect socially with others. Must have also at least 2 of five categories of symptoms: delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, grossly disorganized or catatonic behavior and negative symptoms
Term
Hallucinations (in schizophrenia)
Definition
False sensory perceptions, typically work with delusions, can often stop voices by humming, counting, etc.
Term
Disorganized Speech (in schizophrenia)
Definition
Underlying disorganization in thought, may go from one idea to another wildly, not guided by logic, may show signs of overinclusion and paralogic
Term
Grossly Disorganized Behavior (in schizophrenia)
Definition
Behaviors inappropriate for situation, behavior ineffective at reaching a specific goal, catatonic behavior
Term
Negative Symptoms of Schizophrenia
Definition

-Absense of/reduction of expected thoughts, behaviors, ideas, etc.

-slowing down of body movements

-poverty of speech

-flattened affect

-loss of basic drives (hunger)

-loss of pleasure

Term
Types of schizophrenia
Definition

Paranoid: delusions of persecution and grandeur, hallucinations

 

Catatonic: nonreaction to environment

 

Disorganized: disorganized speech and behavior, inappropriate or flattened affect,

Term
Congenital Influences on Schizophrenia
Definition

-Prenatal or birth traumas

-Prenatal lack of nutrition

-Prenatal viral infections

-Brain chemistry

Term
Brain Chemistry: Dopamine Theory of Schizophrenia
Definition

-Schizophrenia arises from over-activity at the brain synapses where dopamine is the neurotransmitter

-Original form of theory too simple

-Now, its unusual patterns of dopamine activity. Decreased activity in prefrontal cortex.

-Antipsychotic drugs may reduce symptoms.

Term
Glutamate Hypothesis of Schizophrenia
Definition

-Deficient glutamate has same impact as increased dopamine

-lower amounts of glutamate in prefrontal cortex and hippocampus. lower glutamate receptors.

Term
Antipsychotic Drugs
Definition

-Block postsynaptic dopamine receptors

-Benefits are from effects on mesolimbocortical system

-Drugs that affect them at other sites can produce tardive dyskenisia (tremors and involuntary movements)

Term
Brain Structure in Schizophrenia
Definition

-Enlargement of cerebral ventricles

-Reduced amount of neural tissue around ventricles

-Decreased neural mass in temporal and frontal lobes and thalamus

-Abnormalities of varietes and arrangements of neurons in cortex

Term
Neurodevelopmental Hypothesis of Schizophrenia
Definition
Genes + abnormalities in prenatal or neonatal development. Poor nutrition in pregnancy, low birth weight, premature birth, delivery complications. Ventricles larger, smaller prefrontal/temporal cortex, fewer than normal synapses in prefrontal cortex, brain abnormalities.
Term
Alzheimer's
Definition

-Severe memory loss with aging

-strikes 50% of those over 85

-better procedural than declarative memory

-genetic components and environmental components

-brain proteins fold abnormally, clump together and interfere with normal neuronal activity

-Plaques and tangles

Term
Treatment of Alzheimer's
Definition

-Elevated levels of glucose and insulin enhance memory

-Drugs that increase acetycholine activity increase some aspects of memory

-Diet rich in anti-oxidants

Term
Basal Ganglia
Definition
Stores sensory information to guide movements, learn rules and organize sequences of movements into a smooth automatic whole. Selection and inhibitions of movements. Linked to OCD.
Term
Huntington's Disease
Definition
Extensive damage to basal ganglia and cerebral cortex. Most often appear in 30-50 years. Jerky arm movements, facial twitches, tremors, writhing. Cannot learn new or improve movements. Depression, memory impairment, anxiety, hallucinations.
Term
Parkinson's Disease
Definition

-Gradual progressive death of neurons, especially in substantia nigra. Decrease in dopamine.

-slow cognitive tasks

-depression and cognitive defects but no emotional outbursts

-Rigidity, muscle tremors, slow movements, difficulty initiating physical and mental activity

Term
Possible causes of Parkinson's
Definition

-Genetic

-Exposure to toxins

-Smoking and caffeine decrease risks?

Term
L-Dopa Treatment
Definition

-Most common treatment for Parkinson's

-Precursor for dopamine that crosses blood-brain barrier

-Doesn't stop progression of disease

Term
Dopamine in Substance Abuse
Definition

-Dopamine plays a central role in in behavioral enforcement

-Events may stimulate release of dopamine

-Addicting drugs cause release of dopamine in nucleus accumbens

Term
Stimulant Drugs
Definition

-Produce excitement, alertness, elevated mood, decreased fatigue, increased motor activity

-Increase activity at dopamine synapses

-Decrease overall activity of brain, but stimuli are more arousing


Amphetamine: increase release of dopamine from presynaptic terminals


Cocaine: blocks reuptake of dopamine, serotonin and norepinephrine, prolonging effects.


Methlyphenidate (Ritalin): often for ADHD. gradual increase and decline to reduce risk of addiction. Increases serotonin for calming effect.


MDMA (ecstasy): low performance on memory tests


Nicotine: stimulates dopamine release. In nucleus accumbens.

Term
Opiates
Definition

-Derived from opium poppy

-Morphine, heroin and methodone

-Addictive when not used as painkillers

-Produces dopamine, blocks GABA

-Reduce stress, decrease memory storage

Term
Marijuana
Definition

-THC, intensifies sensory experiences

-Used to relieve pain, nausea and glaucoma

-Some memory impairments

-Can increase long-term depression and weaken normal neural memory connections

-Limits release of excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters

 

Term
Hallucinogenic Drugs
Definition

-LSD stimulates serotonin receptors at inappropriate times for longer than normal duration.

-Distort perception

Term
Alcohol and Alcoholism
Definition

-Most widely used drug

-Alcoholism: when it interferes with person's life and healthy functioning

Effects: inhibits flow of sodium across membranes and increases membranes, decreases serotonin, facilitates response by GABA receptor, blocks glutamate receptors, increases dopamine

Term
Types of Alcoholism
Definition

Type 1 (A): later onset, gradual onset, less genetic relatives with alcoholism, men and women equally, less severe

 

Type 2 (B): Early, rapid onset, genetic relatives with alcoholism, more in men, very severe, associated with criminality, genetic basis

Term
Alcohol Metabolism and Antabuse
Definition

Antabuse: moderately effective in treating alcoholism.

 

Stops metabolism of ethyl alcohol by antagonizing effects of enzyme that converts acetycholine into acetic acid. Nausea, headache and stomach pain when alcohol is injested.

Term
Risk factors for alcohol abuse
Definition

-Person high in sensation seeking more likely to be heavy alcohol drinker

-Sons of alcoholics report low intoxication feelings after drinking, like feeling less drunk. More likely to abuse within 8 years of finding. Report more tension from drinking. Smaller than normal amygdala.

Term
Problems in Identifying and Measuring Intelligence
Definition
Historical lack of consensus of how to define intelligence, historical disagreement of how intelligence can best be measured, examine origin of modern intelligence testing and some of the controversies it has been brought about
Term
Binet
Definition

-Binet-Simon Intelligence Testing

-To determine grade level student should be in

-Intelligence not just hereditary, not one single entity

-higher-order mental abilities related to one another

-nurtured through interaction with environment

-concept of mental level

Term
IQ
Definition

-Developed by Lewis Terman

-Mental age by chronolocal age x 100

 

Term
Wechsler Intelligence Test
Definition

-Most widely used test of general intelligence

-Original test modeled after Binet's test

Term
Sir Francis Galton
Definition

-Intelligence as an inherited property of the nervous system. Varies from person to person.

-Makes some able to learn more from experiences or reason logically.

-Neural quickness and sensory acuity- speed and accuracy with which they could detect and respond to stimuli.

-NOT successful!

Term
Charles Spearman
Definition

-British psychologist and mathemitician

-Liked Galton's idea of intelligence as a single entity. Objected Galton's tests of motor and sensory abilities.

-Liked Binet's tests of memory, understanding and reasoning

-Came up with factor analysis.

Term
Factor Analysis
Definition

-By Spearman

Factors: memory, pattern perception, logic and verbal fluency

-Scores on tests positively correlated with scores on other tests

-Called "g" general intelligence and "s" specific ability. G is NOT biological.

Term
Raymond Cattell
Definition

Divided "g" into crystallized and fluid.

 

Crystallized: ability derived directly from previous experiences.

 

Fluid: Ability to perceive relationships independent of previous specific practice or instruction

Term
Validity of IQ tests as predictors of achievement
Definition

-Correlate moderately well with grades in school

-in north america, likelihood of achieving a high-ranking job has more to do with parents' socioeconomic class than IQ score.

Term
Mental Self Government
Definition

-Sternberg.

-Control mental resources in a way that allows for efficiency in problem solving

-Componential model of intelligence

 

Term
Ecological Perspective on Intelligence
Definition
Intelligence is property of person in combination with an environmental context. Intelligence as adaptation of one's environment.
Term
Variables when talking about intelligence and the brain
Definition
basic-brain hierarchy, gross anatomy, primary vs. association areas, neural architecture, cognitive domains and functional modularity, hormones and neurochemistry.
Term
3 Association areas or systems of the brain
Definition

Prefrontal system, temporolimbic system and posterior parietal system.

 

-Different permutations of functions and interactions between 3 systems provide a central explanatory framework for explaining differnt forms of intelligence (and some aspects of personality)

Term
Pick's Disease
Definition
Rare neurodegenerative disorder. Progressive destruction of nerves. Aphasia and dementia. Build up of tau proteins in neurons.
Term
Apraxia
Definition
Problems with motor planning.
Term
Agraphia
Definition
Acquired deficiency of written skills. May lack other fine motor skills.
Term
Dyslexia
Definition
Impairs person's fluency or comprehension accuracy in being able to read, speak and spell. Auditory, visual and attentional.
Term
Acalculia
Definition
Difficulty performing mathematical tasks. acquired later in life, due to neurological injury.
Term
Tourette's Syndrome
Definition
inherited neuropsychiatric disorder. Multiple physical/motor tics and at least one vocal (phonic) tic.
Term
William's Syndrome
Definition
-Rare neurodevelopmental disorder caused by a deletion of about 26 genes from the long arm of chromosome 7. "elfin" facial expression. cheerful demeanor, easy talking to strangers, developmental delay, strong language skills, cardiovascular problems
Term
Multiple Intelligences
Definition

1) Logical-Mathematical

2) Visuo-spatial

3) Kinesthetic

4) Musical

5) Interpersonal

6) Intrapersonal

7) Natural

8) Existential

9) Linguistic

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