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Botany Exam 2
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116
Biology
Undergraduate 1
02/24/2015

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Term
Photosynthesis
Definition
The conversion of light energy into chemical energy
Term
Cellular Respiration
Definition
The process in which the chemical bonds of energy-rich molecules such as glucose, are converted into energy usable for life processes.

C6H12O6 + O2 --enzymes--> CO2 + H20 + ATP + Heat

Respiration starts in the cytosol. Sugar is kicked out from chloroplast into cytosol. Consumed for respiration. The process ends in the mitochondria.
Term
The summary equation of Cellular Repiration
Definition
essentially the reverse of photosynthesis yet it precedes by different mechanisms.
Term
CU: 3 stage process
Definition
1) Glycolysis
2) The Kreb's Cycle
3) Electron Transport chain
Term
CU: Major inputs

Major outputs
Definition
Sugars and Oxygen

Carbon dioxide, ATP, Water & Heat
(38 molecules are possible to be produced upon complete cellular respiration of one molecule of glucose.
Term
Glycolysis
Definition
Occurs in the cytosol of the cell
made up of 10 different steps or reactions
Term
Major inputs:

Major outputs:
Definition
Glucose

2 pyrubate molecules, 2 ATP (net), & 2 NADH
The ATP can be used for work in the cell, NADHD is an input in the electron transport chain, pyruvate fuels the Krebs Cycle
Term
Other ATP (ATP produced but not used by Cellular respiration)
Definition
Carbon skeletons formed at different steps can be drained from the pathway & used to make other, more complex, molecules
Term
Photosynthesis & Respiration
Definition
2 primary energy and carbon transformation systems in plants
Photosynthesis converts light into chemical energy
Cellular respiration releases that energy

Together they form a system by which energy flows through an ecosystem
Term
Energy
Definition
Flows through an ecosystem
The energy stored temporarily by organisms is eventually released as heat
Term
Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)
Definition
Molecule that transports chemical energy (like cellular currency)
Is continuously recycled between ATP & ADP
Term
ADP
Definition
is the "spent battery" form of the molecule (the 3rd phosphate is lost, releasing the energy stored in the bond)
Donated electrons provide the energy for converting ADP to ATP (Occurs in photosynthesis and cellular respiration)
Term
Glucose
Definition
The major starting point and input of cellular respiration

Free (unbound) glucose is usually not abundant in plant cells and therefore more complex molecules (i.e starch, sucrose, etc) must first be converted to glucose
Term
2 main functions of Cellular Respiration
Definition
1) ATP production:
converts the energy stored in glucose into ATP for work in the cell
ATP is the major source of usable chemical energy in the metabolism

2) Supplies carbon skeletons for the subsequent biosynthesis (powered by ATP) of complex molecules:
Intermediate molecules of respiration serve as building blocks for amino acids, fatty acids, nucleic acids, etc.
Term
Anaerobic Respiration
Definition
Occurs when no oxygen is present

Fermentation is a type of anaerobic respiration
(occurs in plants and animals when oxygen levels are insufficient for aerobic respiration)
Includes glycolysis and a step after pyruvate that forms either lactate or ethanol
Produces small amounts of ATP
Term
Complex molecules: Proteins
Definition
Make up a large percentage of the biomass of many plant tissues

Polymers consisting of one or more long chains of amino acids (There are 20 different amino acids that are known to occur in proteins) (Each protein contains a unique, prescribed order of amino acids)
Amino acids contain nitrogen (Plants get nitrogen from the soil)
Term
R-groups
Definition
Each R group (Side chain) is different for each amino acid
Term
Primary structure of Protein
Definition
The sequence of amino acids in a protein, govered by a plants genes
Term
Secondary, Tertiary, and Quaternary
Definition
Proteins fold and twist into unique three dimensional structures that determine thier functions
Term
3 main roles of Proteins
Definition
1) Enzymes (catalyze biochemical reactions)

2) Structural proteins (occur in cell walls and cellular membranes)

3) Storage proteins (Accumulate in seeds and are broken down during seed germination and used as a source of nitrogen for early development)(Seed proteins serve as a major source of amino acids consumed by animals that eat plants)
Term
Complex Molecules: Lipids (fat)
Definition
Water-repellent compounds made mostly of carbon and hydrogen

The major lipids of all plants are triglycerides, phospholipids, and waxes, which all contain fatty acids.
Term
Triglycerides
Definition
A type of lipid that is composed of glycerol with three chains of fatty acids linked to it

Most abundant in seeds

Store both chemical energy and carbon that are used when the seed germinates

More Carbon and energy can be stored in lipids that in starch

Some seeds are commercially valuable for their oil (i.e cotton, sesame, sunflower)
Term
Phospholipids
Definition
A phospholipid consists of Glycerol that is bonded to two Fatty Acids, which are hydrophobic, and to one Phosphate group, which is hydrophilic.

Impo components of cellular membranes
Term
Cell Membrane
Definition
Fluid Mosaic Model:
Membranes consist primarily of phospholipids and proteins
Fatty, fluid film with proteins
Proteins are involved in cell signaling and other functions
Term
Waxes
Definition
Complex mixtures of fatty acids and other lipid molecules
Often comprise the outermost later of leaves, fruits, and herbaceous stems
Prevent water loss from plants
A number of plant waxes are economically impo
Term
Molecular Movement
Solute
Solvent
Definition
All molecules display random thermal motion
This, solute molecules tend to move around in a solution ( a solute is a molecule dissolved in solution)
Solvent the thing you dissolve the molecule in
Term
Due to random momvement of dissolved molecules
Definition
Solutes diffuse outwards from regions of high concentration to regions of lower concentration
Term
Diffusion
Definition
The net movement of molecules, either dissolved or suspended, from an area of greater concetration to an area of a lesser concentration

Tends to cause the distribution of particles to become homogenous throughout a medium

Diffusion accounts for much of the movement of molecules in plants
Term
The energy of diffusion
Definition
is derived from the random motion of particles that is caused by molecular and atomic motion
Term
Imbition
Definition
Passive absorption of a fluid by a soild body without resultant chemical change in either

Results in swelling
Term
Osmosis
Definition
The diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane

So if a membrane is permeable to water but impermeable to a solute, water diffuses by osmosis into the side having the higher solute concentration and the lower water concentration

One of the sides increases in volume due to osmotic pressure (forcing it upwards)
Term
Osmosis and plants
Definition
most plants are surrounded by an environment with a lower concentration of solutes and higher concentration of water. This difference in solute concentration results in water entering plants (& plants cells)
Cells absorb as much water as they can which results in turgor pressure which is key in terms of cell expansion, keeping non-woody plants upright, and supporting fleshy stalks and leaves

Cells lose turgor pressure when they are placed in dry environments or high-salt solutions
Term
Water Potential
Definition
The potential energy of water (like solutes) to flow to areas where it is less concentrated

Can be used to predict the flow of water through a plants
Term
Plasmolysis
Definition
Shrinkage of the cytoplasm away from the cell wall due to the loss of water by osmosis
Occurs when plants are placed in dry or high-salt env.
Causes cells to loose turgor pressure and causes plant to wilt
Term
Membranes and Transport Proteins
Definition
Regulate water in cells
Key to turgor pressure is the import and export of molecules other than water to and from cells (Although water moves more freely across biological membranes in response to concentration differences, membranes in response to concentration differences, control of osmosis occurs by regulating the concentrations of solutes inside cells

Selectively permeable membranes use transport proteins to regulate the flux of molecules to and from cells
Term
Active transport or passive transport
Definition
How proteins work:
Active transport: requires the direct input of energy (ATP)
Passive: uses concentration gradients
Term
Primary Growth
Definition
Growth in the length of the plant
Results from mitotic activity in the apical meristems

Mitosis occurs in the Shoot Apical Meristem, and Root Apical Meristem
Term
Secondary Growth
Definition
Growth in girth (Diameter) of the plant
Wood is a product of secondary growth
Tissue responsible for secondary growth: Vascular Cambium
Term
Monocots plants
Dicots
Definition
Corn, Wheat, Grass
Oak, Elm, Williw
Term
Monocots
Definition
Do not have secondary growth
Term
Monocots vs Dicots

Cotyledons
Definition
Monocots have vascular bundles everywhere unlike dicots which are at the edges. - stems

Distinguished by their seed characteristics
Monocots produce seeds with only one cotyledon (seed leaf), Dicots use two cotyledons

Cotyledons: modified leaves involved in storing or supplying energy and nutrients for the embryo in a seed
Term
Vascular Cambium
Definition
Meristematic cells that are going through mitosis
Produces new vascular tissue: xylem & phloem
Responsible for secondary growth
Term
Secondary Growth and Vascular Cambium
Definition
As an herbaceous dicot grows, the vascular cambium connects and forms a ring of vascular cambium
The ring is of xylem cells to its inside and phloem to its outside
Term
Xylem
Definition
Forms a new ring each year
Each rin is called a growth ring
Term
Phloem
Definition
Gets crushed with secondary growth
Therefore, it does not produce visible growth rings
Term
Wood
Definition
Secondary xylem cells
by vascular cambium

The environment affects the production of different kinds of week
Term
Spring Wood
Definition
Formed during the moist days of spring (Early in the growing season)
Consists of larger cells
Term
Summer Wood
Definition
Formed during the drier days of summer (later in the growing season) which gradually slow the activity of the vascular cambium

Consists of smaller cellls
Term
Winter
Definition
During the winter the vascular cambium goes dormant and no wood is produced
Term
Difference in spring & summer wood
Definition
are abrupt in most trees and are visible as growth rings

In temperate regions, the predictable seasons usually produce one growth ring per year and thus they are called annual rings
Term
False Rings
Definition
caused by stresses during the growing season which are significant enough to induce changes in the size and shape of the rings.
Term
Climate
Definition
(Availability of water) strongly influences the formation and thickness of growth rings

Due to this, a cross section of wood is a diary of the climatic history of a region
Term
Dendrochronology

Uses
Definition
The science of interpreting history by studying the growth rings

Anthropology, meteorology, fire histories (fires leave scars on trees), arts and instruments, history (shipwrecks), artifacts, earthquakes (root damage can sometimes result in missing rings), climatology (the ring chronologies can reconstruct climate patterns for thousands of years)
Term
Sapwood
Definition
The region of the xylem that actively conducts water and minerals (sap)

Usually light, pale, and relatively weak
Term
Heartwood
Definition
Older, non-functioning region of the xylem
Not involved in the conduction of water and minerals (Sap)
Usually becomes impregnated with tannins, resins, gums, etc. giving rise to a dense, strong, and dark-coloured wood
Term
advantages of having wood in your stems
Definition
Makes the plant sturdier and able to grow taller
The increased hight decreases the chances that the plant's leaves will be shaded by other plants
Term
Disadvantages of having wood in your stems
Definition
More tissue to metabolically support
Generally delays reproduction because the plant is focused on growth (and not reproduction) in the early part of its life cycle
Term
Bark
Definition
As dicot stems get older, the epidermis is replaced by bark
The bark is produced by the cork cambium
The bark is a tree's external, protective barrier
Term
Cross section of a tree from outside to inside
Definition
bark--> cork cambium--> Phloem--> vascular cambium--> xylem
Term
Bark Production
Definition
Cork cambium develops within the outer cortex
Bark cells are produced by cork cambium
Outer cells slough off as stem expands
New cork cambium develops within secondary phloem
Term
Bark
Definition
prevents oxygen gas from readily diffusing into the tree
living cells- cork cambium, phloem, and vascular cambium are alive at maturity
These living cells need oxygen
Dead cells- all xylem and bark cells are dead at maturity, they dont need oxygen
Term
Lenticels
Definition
Raised, localized areas of loosely packed cells in the outer bark
Gas exchange occurs across the bark through lenticels
Term
Economic Botany
Definition
The study of plants (As well as algae and fungi) of economic importance to humans
Includes:
The history of the impact of plants on humans and the impact of humans on plants (eg. the origins of agriculture, origins of civilization, discovery of the Americas [looking for new spices])

It is multidisciplinary
Term
Contributory disciplines
Definition
Botany, economics, taxonomy, anthropology, archaeology, history, pharmacognosy, geography, ecology..
Term
Main Functions of stems
Definition
Support
Storage: starch & water
Conduction: transport water and minerals between roots and leaves
Term
Bud Scales
Definition
Tough, overlapping, waterproof leaves

Cover and protect buds from low temperatures, desiccation, and pathogens
Term
Study the Morphology id external stem
Definition
Figure on powerpoint:
Terminal Bud, Node, Internode, Axillary bud, Leaf Scar, Bud Scale Scars, Vascular Bundle Scars, Lenticels,
Term
Study figure
Definition
Apical Meristem
Leaf
Vascular Tissue
Axillary Bud
Term
Opposite Leaves
Alternate Leaves
Whorled Leaves
Definition
OL: pair of leaves from each node
AL: a single leaf from each node
WL: 3 or more leaves from each node
Term
Modified Stems
Definition
One way plats have evolved to be competitive in various environments
Can be above or below the ground
Term
Stem tendrils
Definition
curly threadlike shaped stems
Term
Stem Spones
Definition
(thorns)
Term
Succulent Stem
Definition
photosynthesis mainly through stems rather than leaves,
certain desert plants (water storage)
Usually no leaves, but thorns
Term
Stolons
Definition
Stems that grow at the soil surface or just below the ground forming adventitious roots at the nodes, and new plants at the buds
Term
Tubers
Definition
modified plant structure that are enlarged and store nutrients like sweet potatoes
Term
Rhizome
Definition
modified stem usually found underground
Term
Bulb
Definition
Short stem with fleshy leaves.
Term
Below ground stems
Definition
Corm
In springs the food passes into the leaves, a corm stores food in the swollen stem. Buds develops each year from the base of the flower shoot.
After flowering, the new corm swells as food is passed into it from the withering leaves
Term
Stems: 4 basic tissues
Definition
Epidermal
Vascular
Ground
Meristematic
Term
Monocot vs Dicot stems
Definition
Vascular bundles are scattered in monocots,
arranged in a ring in Dicots
Term
Epidermis: major functions
Definition
retention of water and protection against herbivores
Term
Cortex
Definition
Mostly parenchyma cells

Major functions: Sometimes photosynthetic and often stores starch
Term
Pith
Definition
Mostly parenchyma cells

Major function: stores starch
Term
Vascular Bundle
Definition
Dicot Stem- Vascular Bundle

Xylem: Conduction of water and minerals upward, thick cell walls

Phloem: Transports dissolved organic solutes (especially sugars) throughout the plant
Meristematic cells that are going through mitosis
Produce new vascular tissue (xylem & phloem)
Responsible for secondary growth (lateral growth)
Term
Fibers in the Dicot stem Vascular Bundle
Definition
Found next to each vascular bundle
Surrounded by thick cell walls made of cellulose
Strong, rigid structures that help support the plant

Concentrated around the outside and function like steel girders of a building keeping the stem upright and stabilizing it in high winds
Term
Monocot Stem
Definition
Epidermis
Cortex: Mostly parenchyma cells
Major function: stores starch
Term
Vascular Bundle in Monocot
Definition
Xylem, Phloem
Term
Fibers in Monocot
Definition
Same as in Dicots
Term
Primary Growth
Definition
Increase length of the plant (resulting from mitotic activity in the apical meristems)
Mitosis occurs in: Shoot Apical Meristem & Root Apical Meristem
Term
Main Functions of Roots
Definition
Anchorage
Absorption (Absorb water and dissolved minerals from the soil)
Conduction: Transport water and dissolved nutrients to and from the shoot)
Storage (They can store large amounts of energy reserves, ie. carrots, sugar beets)
Term
Radicle (First root)

Function
Definition
First structure to emerge from the germinating seed

Supplies water & nutrients to the shoot before the shoot breaks through the surface of the soil

As the plant grows, the roots will avoid dry soil
Term
2 main underground root systems
Definition
Taproot systems
Fibrous root systems
Term
Taproot systems
Definition
Have one large primary root (taproot) and many smaller and secondary roots that grow from it
Secondary roots are also known as branch or lateral roots

Very common in dicots

Many taproots have evolved to preform a storage function or are evolved to absorb water deep underground
Storage taproots i.e. carrots, sugar beets
Deep Water Absorption- i.e. mesquite (can penetrate more than 50 meters down)
Term
Fibrous root systems
Definition
Consists of an extensive mass or network of similarly sized roots

Very common in monocots
i.e. grasses

Extensive mass of similarly sized roots
Term
Adventitious roots

Main Functions
Definition
Roots that arise from leaves or stems (i.e., not from other roots)

Help to support upright stems (these types of adventitious roots are called prop roots)

Involved in vegetative or asexual reproduction
Term
Root Cap
Definition
Protects the growing parts of a root as the root grows through the soil

Can secrete large amounts of mucigel which contains sugars, enzymes, and amino acids.
Term
Mucigel
Major Functions (4)
Definition
Protection
Lubrication
Water Absorption
Nutrient Absorption
Term
Subapical region of the root
Definition
The part of the root just behind the root cap

Divided into three zones:
Zone of cell division, zone of cell elongation, and zone of cell maturation
Term
Zone of Cell Divison
Definition
Consists mainly of the root apical meristem where new cells are produced via mitosis
Term
Zone of Cell Elongation
Definition
Area where the newly formed cells elongate by as 150- fold

Cell elongation in this zone shoves the root cap through the soil
Term
Zone of Cell Maturation
Definition
Area where the immature, elongated cells begin to take on specific functions

Root hairs also develop on the outside of this part of the root
Term
Root Hairs
Definition
Extensions of epidermal cells which greatly increase the absorption surface area of the root
Term
Dicot Root
Epidermis
Definition
Outer layer of cells covering the root
Term
Cortex
Definition
Parenchyma cells

Constitutes the majority of cells in the root and often most of the starch
Term
Stele
Definition
The central vascular cylinder of roots
Term
Stele contains
Definition
Xylem: conduction of water and minerals upwards
Thick cell walls

Phloem: transports dissolved organic solutes through the plant
Term
Vascular Cambium
Definition
Responsible for secondary growth (lateral growth) in the roots
Term
Pericycle
Definition
A thin layer of meristematic cells

Impo because it produces secondary roots

As secondary roots form they force their way through the cortex and epidermis
Term
Endodermis
Definition
Cells that are tightly packed together and lack intercellular spaces
Four of the six sides of each endodermis cell are impregnated with a Casparian Strip made of wax
The endodermis regulates the movement of minerals into and out of the vascular tissue
Term
Monocot Root Croos Section
Definition
Epidermis
Cortex
Endodermis
Pericycle
Pith
Xylem
Phloem
Root Hairs
Term
Casparian Strips
Definition
Forces water and dissolved minerals to pass through the cell membrane of endodermis cells to reach the vascular tissue

The wax of the strip redirects the inward movement of water and minerals as they flow through the endodermis

As a results, water and dissolved minerals must pass through the cell membranes of the endodermis cells to reach the vascular tissue
Term
Apoplastic Transport
Definition
Pathway A: Along cell walls and intercellular spaces around protoplast
Term
Symplastic Transport
Definition
Pathway B: Though cellular membranes and living cells
Term
Endodermis
Definition
Results in endodermis regulating the movement of water and minerals into and out of the vascular tissue
(strips)
Term
Root Pressure
Definition
Positive pressure of roots that forces water up the stem
Caused by active movement of minerals into root cells (Via active transport) that draws water into the xylem
Term
Guttation
Definition
The exudation of liquid water from leaves caused by root pressure

Root pressure forces water out of leaves through specialized openings at leaf margins called Hydathodes
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