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Biology
Exam 1
86
Biology
Undergraduate 2
09/26/2012

Additional Biology Flashcards

 


 

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Term
Natural Selection (Darwin & Wallace)
Definition
Successful traits of parents are passed onto the next generation
Term
Alleles
Definition
Many genes exist in 2 or more forms called ____
Term
Artificial Selection
Definition
Breeding plants and animals to desirable characteristics
Term
Evidence For Evolution (5)
Definition
1. Fossil
2. Anatomical
3. Biogeographical
4. Biochemical
5. Embryological
Term
Homologous Structures
Definition
Structures that were inherited from a common ancestor

Example: flippers on whales = arms on people and wings on birds
Term
Biochemical Evidence
Definition
- Amino Acid Sequence
- DNA sequence
Term
Embryological Evidence
Definition
- Pouches
- Tails
- Gills
Term
Genetic Drift
Definition
Involves chance
- decreases genetic diversity in a small population
Term
Bottleneck Effect
Definition
A large population may be severely reduced in size by a disaster
- The remaining individuals are unlikely to have genetic diversity of the original large population
Term
Founder Effect
Definition
Genetic drift in a new isolated colony
Term
Gene Flow
Definition
The flow of genes between populations by migrating individuals
Term
Mutations
Definition
Give rise to new alleles
Term
Deleterious
Definition
Mutation alleles that do NOT help survival
Term
Biological Species Concept
Definition
Based on reproductive isolation:
- Populations of a species CAN interbreed or are interbreeding
- Holds well for animals but not plants or bacteria
Term
Morphological Species Concept
Definition
Based on anatomical differences between species
- Often used to identify fossil species
Term
Recognition Species Concept
Definition
Distinct mating adaptions by species: molecular, form, behavior

Example: peacocks tail
Term
Cohesion Species Concept
Definition
Emphasizes factors that maintain the distinct form and behavior of a species
- Reproductive barriers and other adaptations
- AKA pluralistic species concept
Term
Ecological Species Concept
Definition
Species are identified by where they live and how they behave -- not what they look like

Example: differentiated by song and habitat preference
Term
Evolutionary Species Concept
Definition
Emphasizes the evolutionary history of a species and the species' unique role in the environment
Term
Define Pre-zygotic
Definition
Impede reproduction and fertilization of the ova between species
Term
Reproductive Barriers: Pre-zygotic
Definition
1. Habitat Isolation (no mating): lions & tigers --> if they live far, can't mate
2. Behavioral Isolation (no mating): peacocks, birds, insects
3. Temporal Isolation (no mating): time differences (day/night)
4. Mechanical Isolation (mating attempt): parts don't fit
5. Gametic Isolation (mating attempt): sperm won't bind to egg or dies
Term
Define Post-zygotic
Definition
These prevent the development of a viable, fertile offspring
Term
Reproductive Barriers: Post-zygotic
Definition
Reduced hybrid viability:
- resulting embryo will NOT develop
- mules are sterile: horse/donkey cannot reproduce --> hybrid breakdown
Plants: hybrid garden veggies
#1 strong, healthy
#2 weak
Term
Speciation
Definition
The origin of new species
- two types: allopatric & sympatric
Term
Allopatric Speciation
Definition
Involves geographical isolation
- more likely if includes: different habitats, peripheral area and small population
- requires barrier
Term
Sympatric Speciation
Definition
Populations are NOT geographically divergent but are genetically divergent
- can happen with animals
- polyploidy (extra chromosomes)
- does NOT require barrier
Term
Polyploidy
Definition
Extra sets of chromosomes
Term
Taxonomy (Linnaeus)
Definition
The identification and classification of species
Term
Systematics
Definition
The study of relationships among organisms
Term
Phylogeny
Definition
The evolutionary history of a species
Term
Phylogenetic Trees
Definition
Show evolutionary relationships among different groups
Term
Taxonomic Categories: Dear, Sella, Kome, Play, Chess, Over, Four, Glasses, Soup
Definition
Domain: eukarya
Supergroup: opisthokonta
Kingdom: anamalia
Phylum: chordata
Class: mammalia
Order: primates
Family: hominidae
Genus: homo
Species: homo sapiens
Term
Proper Way To Name Species
Definition
1. First part of species name is called GENUS and it is always uppercase
2. Second part of species name is called SPECIFIC EPITHET and it is always lowercase

~They are always in italics or underlined
~Sometimes genus is abbreviated to one letter
Term
Monophyletic
Definition
All species in a taxon that arose from a SINGLE ancestor
Term
Polyphyletic
Definition
Has species that arose from MORE THAN ONE ancestor

Example: bryophytes
Term
Paraphyletic
Definition
When not all of ancestors descendants are included in a taxon
Term
Analogous Structures
Definition
Similar characteristics in unrelated species
~arose through convergent evolution
Term
Convergent Evolution
Definition
The process whereby organisms not closely related (not monophyletic), evolve similar traits as a result of having to adapt to similar environments
Term
Cladistic Analysis
Definition
Classification based on phylogeny
Term
Origin Of Life
Definition
Prokaryotes & Eukaryotes
Term
Prokaryote Differences from Eukaryotes
Definition
- No membrane bound organelles in prokaryotes
- No membrane bound nucleus in prokaryotes
- Different in arrangement of chromosomes
PROKARYOTES HAVE RING SHAPED
EUKARYOTES ARE LINEAR
- Difference in ribosomes as well
Term
Early Life
Definition
All living things were prokaryotes for the first 1.5 billion years of life
- Increasing oxygen levels led to the evolution of eukaryotic cells
- During early cambrian times, most animal phyla evolved calling this the CAMBRIAN EXPLOSION
Term
Prokaryotes
Definition
Most common organism on earth
- Sticky protective coating called CAPSULE
- Most are bacteria
- 2 domains: Bacteria & Archea
~Bacteria ONLY have cell walls of peptidoglycan which consists of sugars and proteins
Term
Gram Stain
Definition
Bacteria can be organized into two groups by using _____
Term
Gram Negative Bacteria
Definition
Violet stains washes out
~have an outer membrane covering cell wall
~more dangerous than gram positive because of toxins in outer membrane and are more resistant to anti-biotics
Term
Gram Positive Bacteria
Definition
Violet color stays
~because of strong bond between cell wall and peptidoglycan
Term
Common Shapes of Prokaryotes
Definition
Cocci: singular coccus, spherical shaped
Bacilli: singular bacillus, rod shaped
Spirochetes: spirilla, corkscrew shaped
Vibrio: comma shaped
Term
Arrangements of Prokaryotes
Definition
Diplococci: cocci in pairs
Streptococci: cocci in chains
Staphylococci: cocci in clusters
Term
Pili
Definition
Rigid cylindrical rods
Term
Fimbriae
Definition
Used to anchor prokaryotes to food sources and for conjunction
Term
Flagella
Definition
Filament shaped, used for locomotion anchored in cell wall
~not all have them
~may have 1,5, or none
Term
Binary Fission
Definition
A form of cell division ONLY by prokaryotes
-asexual reproduction
~eukaryotes have SEXUAL reproduction
Term
Endospores
Definition
Some prokaryotes can form into very tough ________ that can allow them to withstand extreme conditions
Term
Sources of Energy
Definition
1.Photoautotrophs: use light energy source and CO2 as carbon source
~eukaryotes --> plants, algae
~prokaryotes --> bacteria
2. Chemoautotrophs: use inorganic chemicals as an energy source and CO2 as carbon source
~certain prokaryotes only
~no eukaryotes possible
~bottom of food chain
3. Photoheterotrophs: use light as an energy source and organic molecules as carbon source
~certain prokaryotes only
~NOT photosynthetic
~NO eukaryotes possible
~more rare
4. Chemoheterotrophs: use organic molecules as an energy and a source of carbon
~many prokaryotes
~many eukaryotes including animals, fungi, many protists and a few plants
~most common
Term
Aerobes
Definition
Obligate: require oxygen
Term
Anaerobes
Definition
-Facultative: will use oxygen if available but can live without it
-Obligate: cannot live at all with oxygen present
Term
Archea (3) Groups
Definition
1.Methanogens: live in anaerobic conditions such as marshes and garbage dumps
~produce methane
2.Extreme Halophiles: live in very salty places
3.Extreme Thermophiles: live under very high temperatures
~belong to more than one kingdom
Term
Symbiosis (3) Forms
Definition
1.Mutualism: both symbionts benefit
2.Commensalism: one symbiont benefits, the other symbiont is neither helped nor harmed (the host)
3.Parasitism: the parasite benefits, the host is harmed
ex. pathogenic bacteria
Term
Nitrogen Fixation
Definition
Certain species of bacteria can "fix" atmosphere nitrogen into a form that can be used by other organisms

Examples: viruses, viroids, prions
Term
Eukaryotes: Protists
Definition
Protists include:
1.Animal like species – protozoa
2.Photosynthetic species – algae
3.Fungus like species – slime, molds and others
Term
Eukaryote Differences from Prokaryotes
Definition
1. Mitochondria (powerhouses of eukaryote cell)
2. Chloroplasts
3. Mitosis (cell division)
4. Meiosis (produces gametes)
5. Sex
6. 9 + 2 flagella (arrangement of microtubules)
7. Cytoskeleton (made of microtubules)
Term
Super group EXCAVATA
Definition
-Named after an excavated feeding groove
-Many phagocytize their food
-Includes parasites such as Trichomonas vaginalis and Giardia lamblia and the Euglenoids and Kinetoplastids
Term
Super group ARCHAEPLASIDA
Definition
Include red algae, green algae, and plants
-Have plastids (organelles such as chloroplasts) with 2 envelope membranes

• Red algae – mostly red but not all
o Most are marine and multicellular
o Some can live very deep (fresh water or damp soil) but most shallow
o Absorb blue and green light and give off red light

• Green algae
o Mostly fresh water
o Very plant-like
o Single celled, colonial, and multicellular
Term
Super group ALVEOLATA
Definition
Includes dinoflagellates, ciliates, and apicomplexans
-Have sac like membranous vesicles called alveoli
• Dinoflagellates
o 2 flagella
o A major component of phytoplankton (photosynthetic plankton)
o Toxic species like Pfiesteria cause red tides
• Ciliates
o Live in freshwater
o They have cilia, short projections used for propulsion
o They have very complex cells
• Apicomplexans
o Parasites of animals
o Includes species of Plasmodium that causes malaria
Term
Super group STRAMENOPILA
Definition
Includes diatoms, water molds, brown algae, and golden algae
-Have flagella hairs and plastids derived from red algae
• Diatoms
o Yellow or Brown in color
o Have glass like walls
o Common in freshwater and marine waters
• Water molds, white rusts, downy mildews
o Fungus like
o A downy mildew causes the Irish potato blight
• Brown Algae
o The largest algae
o All multicellular, mostly marine
o Includes kelp
-Many types of protists move and feed with structures called pseudopodia
Term
Super group AMOEBOZOA
Definition
Includes amoebas and slime molds
• Amoebas
o Mostly free living
o Some are parasitic
• Plasmodia slime molds
o Live as an amoeboid mass called plasmodium
• Cellular slime molds
o Live as single cells
o Form multicellular fruiting bodies
Term
Super group RHIZARIA
Definition
-Includes radiolarians, foraminiferans, and chlorarachniophyta
-The have thing hair like pseudopodia
• Chlorarachniophyta
o Have plastids derived from green algae
• Radiolarian
o Have glassy skeletons
o Many are planktonic
• Foraminiferans (forams)
o Have porous shells of calcium carbonate
o Constituent of sedimentary rock
Term
Super group OPISTHOKONTA
Definition
-Includes animals, fungi, and choanoflagellates
• Choanoflagellates
o Have swimming cells possessing a single posterior flagellum
Term
Angiosperms
Definition
-Means seed born in a vessel
-The flowering plants
-> 250,000 species
• Phylum Anthophyta
o All flowering plants
o Flowering plants were divided into two classes: Monocots and Dicots, now there are more.
• Monocots: include grasses, sedges, lilies, irises, palms, orchids, and others
• Eudicots: contains most of the old dicots, this includes roses, beans, oaks, maples, asters, buttercups, and many more
• Water lilies belong in their own group
• Magnoliids
• Star anise and relatives
• Amborella trichopoda is the most “primitive” flowering plant and belongs in a group by itself
Term
Gymnosperm
Definition
Means naked seeds
-There are 4 Phyla of gymnosperms
• Cycadophyta
o The cycads
o Have their naked seeds on special leaves
• Gentophyta
o Only a few species (70)
o Most closely related to flowering plants of the gymnosperms
o Ex. Welwichia
• Ginkgophyta
o The ginkos
o Only one living species Ginkgo biloba
o Many species during the time of the Dinosaurs
o Has fleshy fruit-like seeds
• Coniferophyta
o The conifers
o Cone bearing plants
o The largest group of gymnosperms ~550 living species
o Many species have needle shaped leaves with thick cuticles and stomata in pits that make them drought resistant
o They are woody plants with lignified cells
Term
Vascular Plants
Definition
-Vascular plants have two conducting tissues, xylem and phloem
• Xylem: Carries water and mineral from the roots
o Made from dead cells
• Phloem: Carries sugar, amino acids, and other organic nutrients
o Formed from living tissue

-Lignin and cellulose are the materials that provide support for vascular plants
• Lignified cells produce fibers
Term
Seedless Vascular Plants
Definition
-The dominant form is the sporophyte NOT the gametophyte as in the bryophytes
Term
Seed Plants
Definition
-The spore is retained in the sporophyte and develops into the gametophyte. So the gametophyte develops inside the sporophyte
-Gametophyte very reduced in the seed plants
-Spores: single celled and very tough
-Seeds: an embryo with a food supply and a protective coat
-Do not need water to fertilize, can live in very dry conditions
Term
Megasporangia
Definition
-Produce megaspores
-Megaspores develop into the female gametophyte that contain the egg
-It is a solid structure called the nucellus
Term
Microsporangia
Definition
Produce microspores
-Microspores develop into male gametophytes (pollen grains) that contain sperm
Term
Integuments
Definition
-Is sporophyte tissue that covers the megasporangiaum
-The seed coat is derived from the integuments
Term
Ovule
Definition
-The combination of integuments, nucellus (megasporangia), and megaspore
-Once a pollen grain lands on an ovule it extends a pollen tube into the egg nucleus fertilizing it
-Seed plants are divided into 2 groups: Gymnosperms and Angiosperms
Term
Phylum Lycophyta
Definition
-Club mosses
-Many tropical lycophytes are epiphytes
-Epiphytes grow on trees but are not parasitic
Term
Phylum Pterophyta
Definition
-Ferns, horsetails, and whisk ferns
• Horsetails
o The gametophytes are free living
o They contain silica – “scouring rushes”
• Whisk Ferns
o They do not have true leaves or roots
• Ferns
o The most common seedless vascular plants ~ 12,000 species
o Mostly herbaceous but there are tree ferns in the tropics
o Most have leaves called fronds
o The sporangia of most ferns are arranged into clusters called sori
Term
Plants
Definition
-Evolved to live on land
-Plants utilize tough materials like cellulose and lignin to support them
-Stomata in plant leaves regulate water levels
-Leaves are covered with a waxy cuticle to control water loss
Term
Primary plant products
Definition
-Produced by the main metabolic processes of plants
-Primary plant products include amino acids, nucleic acids, and cellulose
Term
Secondary plant products
Definition
-Often specialties of a certain species
-Toxins, waxes, and lignin are examples
Plants evolved multicellular reproductive organs called gametangia
• The gametangia produces the gametes, which are the reproductive cells
• Retention of the embryo: protects embryo from drying out inside female
The life cycle of plants involves alternation of generations
• One generation is the multicellular, produces gametes through mitosis, haploid (1), gametophyte
• The other generation is the multicellular, produces gametes through meiosis, diploid (2), sporophyte
Only plants and some algae have a haploid and diploid multicellular form. Animals DO NOT HAVE a multicellular haploid form
• The gametophyte and sporophyte are ALWAYS different in forms (size and shape)
The sporophyte, through the process of meiosis, produces haploid spores
The gametophyte, through the process of mitosis, produces the gametes
• The male gamete fertilizes the female gamete to form a diploid zygote
Term
Bryophytes
Definition
Gametophyte (green), Sporophyte (stalk), Sporangium (tip)
-The bryophytes include the mosses, liverworts, and hornworts
-They have NO specialized vascular tissue, as do the other plants, this limits their size
-Antheridium: the male → gametangium: produces sperm
-Archegonium: the female → gametangium: produces eggs
-Sporangium: the structures that produce the spores
-In bryophytes (ONLY) the gametophyte is dominant
-In other plants the sporophyte is dominant
Term
Phylum Bryophyta
Definition
-Mosses
-Grow in mats in damp places
-Sphagnum moss is very abundant
Term
Phylum Hepatophyta
Definition
-Liverworts
-Have loves that look like the lobes of a liver
-They can reproduce sexually and asexually
Term
Phylum Anthocerophyta
Definition
-Hornworts
-Have elongated horn shaped sporophytes
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