chromatin condense into chromosomes

duplicated chromosomes appear as two sister chromatids

centrioles move apart and spread microtubules

chromosomes move to center of nucleus

nuclear membrane dissipears

rod shaped structure containing genes

made of two homologous chromatids joined at a centromere

chromosomes are on the middle plate of the spindle fibers attached at the centromere

centromeres joining two chromatids come apart and each chromatid becomes independent

no dividing

indistinct chromosomes called chromatin

spend most of time here

normal cell functions

chromatids move to opposite poles of the cell pulled by sipindle fibers

two poles have equlivant and complete collections of chromosomes

each set of chromosomes at opposite poles gets enclosed in its own nuclear membrane

microtubules dissipear, chromosomes uncoil and resume interphase state

cytoplasm continues to divide (cytokinesis)

each cell assumes interphase configeration

homologous chromosomes pair

crossing over

chromosomes appear to be double stranded

2 doubled, homologous chrommosomes contain 4 chromatids (tetrad)

2 chromosomes at 21 (trisomy)

mental retardation, low muscle tone, shorter, facial characteristics

deletion from short arm on chromosome 5

cat like cry, mental and physical retardation, round face, early childhood death

XXY male

underdeveloped testies, breasts enlarged, mentally retarded

X_ female

underdeveloped ovaries

no ovulation

where photosynthesis takes place in plant cells

contains chloryphyll

maintains cell chape

may contain waste

maintains cell pH

covered with ribosomes

proteins are made here and transported

process by which plants turn light energy into chemical energy

make sugar from CO2 using sunlight energy

the sugar is then converted to ATP using cellular respiration

solvent

caratone

xyanthophyll

chloryphyll a

chloryphyll b

caratone

xyanthophyll

chloryphyll a

chloryphyll b

used to trapp / absorb light

color is determined by light it reflects

longer wavelengths are more red and shorter more voilet

male reproductive organs

filament - stalk

anther - contains pollen

pollen grains - male gametes

non-vascular plants

liverwords, hornwords, mosses

have tissues but lack vascular tissues

no flowers or seeds

spores

have special tissue to transport water

club mosses, horse tails, ferns, gymnosperms, angiosperms

type of vascular plant

has a true seed with embryo, nutrition tissue, and seed coat

conifers

type of vascular plant

has encased seeds

flowering plants

base or stalk of flowering plant

often modified leaves

enlarges into receptacle where other flower parts attach

leaf like and protect young flower

photosynthetic

collectivly known as the calyx

protect young bud during development

(pistil)

female reproductive organ

stigma, style, and ovary of a flowering plant

part of the carpel of a flowering plant

catches pollen

stalk

part of the carpel of a flowering plant

when pollen, moved by pollenation syndromes because plants are sessile, lands on the stigma 

abiotic pollination (non-living)

biotic pollination (living)

animals can become highly specilized to a specific flower

plants can attract specific insects by providing food or deception

unit: seed or entire fruit

agents: gravity, wind, water, birds, mammals

entire carpel is fleshy and contains many seeds

tomatoes, dates, grapes

contain only one seed

cherries, peaches, olives

any reaction with an enzyme

phases: anabolism and catabolism

cellular breakdown

cellular respiration

catabolism

breaks glucose down releasing ATP for energy

enzymes help

with O2

most energy

without O2

glycolysis, fermentation

anaeromic respiration

glucose turns to lactic acid and energy

glucose turns to ethanol, CO2, and energy

makes the least energy

test to see if Mg has effect on fermentation rate of yeast by measuring CO2 production

control: yeast, glucose, water

add Mg: yeast, glucose, MgSo4

remove Mg: yeast, glucose, NaF (percipitates)

cofactor of metabolism

facilitates function of enzymes

required to make ATP because it is envoled in all enzymatic reactions transfering a phosphate from one molecule to another

restriction fragment length polymorphism

DNA polymorphisms (variations) constitute the 1% of the difference

repetitive DNA or junk DNA

have a negative charge

change the length of the DNA by restriction enzymes so they can be seperated by size in gel electrophoresis

double helix

made of nitrogenous bases, sugar deoxyribose, phosphate group

held together by hydrogen bonds

primidines

purines

A fits T

G fits C

ribose nucleic acid

takes instructions from DNA template to make a protein

has uracil instead of thymine

A pairs with U

transcription

translation

synthesis of RNA from DNA template

DNA unwinds then RNA makes a copy of the DNA strand but replacing T with U making a mRNA which carries these instructions to the ribosome

synthesis of protein

changes base sequence of RNA to one amino acid which build proteins

3 bases on the RNA are a codon which code for a specific amino acid

seperated RFLP fragments are transfered to nitrocellulose paper labeled with a radioactive probe and developed against x-ray film and distances can be compared to determine relatedness between samples

lighter fragments travel father

R_f value

= (distance the DNA fragment migrated from the origin) / (distance from the origin to the reference point)

can make a standard log curve with the DNA fragment length being the antilog of the number on the curve

glucose + 6H2O + 6O2 -->

6CO2 + 12H2O + energy (456,000 calories)

part of carpel on base

contains ovules or female gametes which can be fertilized to make a seed

science of the form and structure of living organisms

a subdivision is anatomy studied by disection

alone the belly or lower surface opposite the back 

(opposite of dorsal)