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BIOL 220W
BIOL 220W Final Exam
204
Biology
Undergraduate 1
05/04/2011

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Term
Species Prevalence (Ecosystem)
Definition
Number of individuals per species is highest at poles
Term
Biomes (distinguished by…)
Definition
Distinguished by predominant plants and particular climates
Term
Biomes at Equator
Definition
Rainforests at equator to tropics
Term
Biomes at 30 N/S
Definition
Desert - same heat as equator will less rain (dry descending air)
Term
Coriolis Effect
Definition
Causes deflection of winds as earth rotates west to east
Term
Climate Diagrams
Definition
Relative position of lines reflect water availability (precipation vs. temperature)
Term
Soil structure changes in repsonse to…
Definition
Climate (weathering, leaching, erosion, decomposition), Organisms (burrowing mixes soil), and Topography (rate and direction of water flow)
Term
Soil "O Horizon"
Definition
"Organic Layer" - freshly fallen organic material (plants, twigs, leaves)
Term
Soil "A Horizon"
Definition
Minerals, salt, clay, silt and sand. HIGH BIOLOGICAL ACTIVITY. Burrowing animals mix from O to A
Term
Soil "B Horizon"
Definition
Clay, humus, other materials leached from A Horizon (PLANT ROOTS)
Term
Soil "C Horizon"
Definition
Weathered parent material. CONTAINS ROCKS. Little biological activity
Term
Tropical Rainforest
Definition
10 degrees of Equator, little temperature variation, annual rainfall of 2,000 to 4,000 mm distributed evenly. Trees add vertical dimension, high canopy (arboreal species), high diversity. RAINFALL LEACHES SOIL QUICKLY - LOW NUTRIENTS
Term
Tropical Dry Forest
Definition
10 to 25 degrees of Equator, seasonal climate, soils rich in nutrients. Less vertical stratification, heavily settled and cleared
Term
Tropical Savanna
Definition
10 to 20 degrees of Equator, wet and dry seasons, drought and wildfires during dry seasons, low water permeability (few trees), mainly herds of grazing animals
Term
Desert
Definition
30 N and 30 S - water loss exceeds precipitation, soil is LOW in organic matter, plants adapt to aridity, low animal abundance (strong behavioral adaptations
Term
Mediterranean Woodland
Definition
Occurs all over, except Antarctica - cool and moist in fall and winter, dry and hot in spring and summer, fragile soils, moderate fertility, human intrustion. Fire resistant evergreen plants and shrubs, animals adapt to drought
Term
Temperate Grassland
Definition
Widespread, periodic droughts, EXTREMELY RICH SOILS, herbivores, low biomass, high productivity
Term
Old Growth Temperate Forest
Definition
40 and 50 degrees, wet, but cool. Fertile soils, very high biomass and production, vertically stratified, full of bacteria and fungi
Term
Boreal Forest (Taiga)
Definition
Northern hemisphere, thin, acidic soils with LOW FERTILITY, high animal density, some species hibernate
Term
Tundra
Definition
Arctic Circle - cool dry climate with short summers, low decomposition rates. Low insect species, low growing plants, large numbers of native mammals
Term
Biogoechemistry
Definition
Life/Earth Chemisty
Term
Water Cycle
Definition
70% of Earth is water, which cycles between the ocean, atmosphere, and terrestrial fresh water (70% is locked up in glaciers and ice caps): Sun evaporates water (from surface of oceans), which condenses to form precipitation.
Term
Phosphorus Cycle
Definition
Most phosphorus is found in mineral deposits which plants cannot access, and thus plants use mychorrhizae to take in P released by the weathering of rocks. Much is washed in oceans and rivers.
Term
Nitrogen Cycle
Definition
Atmospheric nitrogen is in a form which organisms cannot use, and must be fixed into NH3 by bacteria, fungi, and algae which may live in symbiosis with plants. N is released during decomposition
Term
Carbon Cycle
Definition
CO2 is dissolved in water for aquatic ecosystems. Three cycles (with different lengths): Rapid, Intermediate, Long Term
Term
Rapid Carbon Cycle
Definition
Exhanged between plants and the atmosphere due to photosynthesis and respiration
Term
Intermediate Carbon Cycle
Definition
Carbon in plant and animal tissues is ingested by animals and released into the atmposphere as CO2
Term
Long Term Carbon Cycle
Definition
"Locked up" Carbon from oceans, lakes, and swamps is converted to peat, coal, natural gas, and oil which is released by heating and burning (most common in arctic where decomposition is very slow)
Term
Lignin
Definition
A complex structural molecule which forms secondary cell walls in plants (strong and flexible, resistant to attacks by micro-organisms and fungi). More lignin and lower nitrogen causes leaves to decompose at a lower rate.
Term
Nitrogen Availability vs. Decomposition
Definition
Higher N content in the soil may lead to higher decomposition rates
Term
Nutrient Cycling
Definition
Nutrients in streams are subject to downstream transport.
Term
Spiral Length
Definition
The length of stream required for a nutrient atom to complete a cycle. SHORT length = high retentiveness (the nutrients stay in one place longer). LONG length = low retentiveness (nutrients make forward progress more quickly)
Term
Three Major Ocean Basins
Definition
Pacific (largest and deepest), Atlantic, and Indian (smallest)
Term
Oceans - Light
Definition
Light decreases with increasing depth - little light ppenetrates past 600m.
Term
Hadal Zone
Definition
Deep black water (6,000m and below)
Term
Abyssal Zone
Definition
4,000 to 6,0000 m
Term
Oceans - Temperature
Definition
Sunlight increases the velocity of the water moleucles on the surface. Rapid motion of these molecules decreases density which allows warm water to float on top of cold water.
Term
Thermocline
Definition
Layer of water through which temperature changes rapidly with depth, creating thermal stratification.
Term
Oceans - Oxygen
Definition
Highest near surface, due to the contact with the atmosphere, lowest at medium depth, because the oxygen consumed by bacteria is not replenished by the atmosphere, and increases again at deeper levels because colder waters contain more concentrated O2
Term
Rivers and Streams - Depth
Definition
Water surface, column, and bottom (benthic)
Term
Riparian Zone
Definition
Transition between the aquatic and upland terrestrial environments
Term
Hyporheic Zone
Definition
Transition between surface water and ground water
Term
Phreatic Zone
Definition
Groundwater
Term
First Order Stream
Definition
Headwater (beginning)
Term
Second Order Stream
Definition
Joining of two first order streams
Term
Third Order Stream
Definition
Joining of two second order streams
Term
Salinity of Streams
Definition
Lowest in tropics where high rainfall leaches soils of soluble materials, highest in desert where low rainfall leads to high concentration of soluble materials in the soil
Term
Oxygenation of Streams
Definition
Highest in cold, well mixed headwaters (first order streams), lowest in warm, downstream river sections. Not stratified, since water is continuously mixed by flow.
Term
Stratification of Lakes
Definition
Epilimnion (sunlight penetrates and warms the water), Metalimnion (temperature and other physical and chemical factors change rapidly with depth), and Hypolimnion (water is cold, dark, and lacking in dissovled oxygen)
Term
Oligiotrophic Lake
Definition
Low production, well mixed, well oxygenated. Steep shoreline and deep bottom maintain lower water temperatures. High oxygen supports larger fish. Low nutrients discourage phytoplankton an aquatic plants.
Term
Eutrophic Lake
Definition
High biological production, may be depleted of oxygen. Shallow bottom reduces total water volume and increases temperature reducing O2 availability. High availability of nutrients supports many aquatic plants and phytoplankton. NITROGEN (eutrophication)
Term
Life Histories
Definition
Adaptations that influence and organisms biology (growth, size, reproduction, mortality)
Term
Principle of Allocaton
Definition
If organisms use energy for one function such as growth, the amount of energy available for other functions is reduced.
Term
Graminoids
Definition
Grasses, reeds, sedges (smallest seeds)
Term
Climbers
Definition
Vines (largest seeds)
Term
Recruitment Rates
Definition
How likely a seed (or offspring of any kind) is to survive and become part of the population.
Term
Small Seeds
Definition
Early colonizing species (thrive under disturbance)
Term
Large Seeds
Definition
Later colonizing species (thrive under constant conditions)
Term
Female Body Size vs. Number of Eggs
Definition
The larger the body, the larger the number of eggs, and the smaller the eggs themselves. The smaller the body, the smaller the number of eggs, and the larger the size of the individual eggs.
Term
"R" Selected
Definition
"Live fast, die young" - early reproductive age, many offspring, little parental care of the offspring.
Term
"K" Selected
Definition
"Slow and steady" - late reproductive age, large size, few offspring, greater parental care.
Term
Female Gametes
Definition
Larger, more energy costly, therefore female reproduction is limited via resource access.
Term
Sexual Selection
Definition
Darwin - natural selection based on competition over mates and reproductive access.
Term
Fisherian Process
Definition
Females choosing males with long tails tend to have sons with long tails and that survive better (genetic);
Alleles that code for longer tails will spread, and so will alleles that make females prefer long tails;
As this process continues, a new effect becomes important: males with long tails are favored not only by better survival, but also by higher mating success;
This may develop into a “runaway” process. What stops it?
Term
Counter Balancing Selection
Definition
The traits which make males more attractive to mates also make them more attractive to predators
Term
Trivers and Willard Hypothesis
Definition
Mothers should produce SONS when in GOOD conditions, and DAUGHTERS when conditions are BAD. Daughters will achieve at least some reproductive success while sons in poor condition may be out competed and may not succeed in any way.
Term
Local Resource Competition Hypothesis
Definition
Mothers should produce the sex which is LEAST LIKELY to compete with them for resources. When resources are limited, it is best to produce the sex which will disperse (generally males).
Term
Water Loss Adaptations (Animals)
Definition
Not sweating, increasing body temperature to reduce evaporation, waterproofing (scales, waxes), excreting concentrated urine (highly efficient kidneys) and reclaiming water from breath
Term
Behavioral Thermoregulation
Definition
Behavioral adjustments to maintain optimal body temperatures.
Term
Endotherms
Definition
Rely on internal sources of energy for regulating body temperature (humans).
Term
Ectotherms
Definition
Rely on external sources of energy for regulating body temperature (lizards, etc). Burrowing, orientation in regards to sun, seeking shade, estivation (reducing metabolic rate in the summer)
Term
Inducible Chemical Defense
Definition
Chemical defenses which can be induced in plants through herbivory - though they must be replaced as the leaves are lost.
Term
Chemical Sequestration
Definition
To reduce costs, animals can "steal" chemical defenses from their prey and incorporate them into their own bodies
Term
Aposematic Coloration
Definition
Warning coloration, advertises chemical defenses
Term
Batesian Mimicry
Definition
A harmless speices mimics noxious species to gain protection without the cost.
Term
Cryptic Coloration
Definition
Prey evoke coloration and markings that make them hard to see.
Term
Dilution Effect
Definition
Schooling and herding may overwhelm predators and, as a consequence, the risk to the individual of being killed is reduced.
Term
Birth Synchrony
Definition
Aggregation during the birth period
Term
Population Density
Definition
Densities decrease with increasing size of organism, depends on the scale of the oobservation (may be different across one pasture, or across the entire United States).
Term
Clumped Distribution
Definition
Positive interactions among individuals or attraction to a common resource (watering hole).
Term
Random Distribution
Definition
Neutral interactions among individuals and the environment, as well as between individuals.
Term
Regular Distribution
Definition
Negative interactions among individuals, local depletion of resources. Seen typically in the desert.
Term
Species Abundance
Definition
The total number of individuals (or biomass) of a species present in a specified area. Requires knowledge of boundaries. Address using indicies of density.
Term
Density Index
Definition
A substitute for an actual measurement of density.
Term
Rarity
Definition
Habitat tolerance, geographic range, local population size.
Term
Least Rare
Definition
Extensive range, broad habitat tolerance, large population
Term
Rarity I
Definition
Has one aspect of rarity, either limited range, low tolerance, or small population.
Term
Rarity II
Definition
Two aspects of rarity
Term
Rarity III
Definition
All three aspects of rarity
Term
Population Dynamics - Influential Factors
Definition
The number of individuals born, the number of individuals that die, the number of individuals that move into a population, and the number of individuals that move out of a population.
Term
BIDE
Definition
N(t-1) = N(t) + B + I - D - E
Term
Population Age Structure
Definition
Influences birth and death rates
Term
Cohort
Definition
A group of individuals born in the same population in the same year (of the same age)
Term
Longitudinal Study
Definition
Following a specific cohort from birth to death, recording each individual's age at reproduction and death.
Term
Life Table
Definition
Age classes, number of surviors at the beginning of each year, number of deaths during the year, scaled to 1000 (or unity)
Term
Survivorship Curves
Definition
Age (x axis) vs. Number of Survivors (y axis)
Term
Type I Survivorship
Definition
Juvenile survivorship is high, followed by relatively high mid-age survivorship, and much greater mortality among older individuals
Term
Type II Survivorship
Definition
Individuals die at equal rates, regardless of age
Term
Type III Survivorship
Definition
High mortality among juveniles, followed by increasing survivorship later in life.
Term
Life Table (x)
Definition
Age class
Term
Life Table (nx)
Definition
Number alive in each age class at each interval
Term
Life Table (lx)
Definition
Survival (probability of surviving until age "x")
Term
Life Table (mx)
Definition
Birth rates, average number of offspring produced by an individual in each age class
Term
Life Table (lxmx)
Definition
Average number of offspring per individual x proportion of individuals surviving to that time period
Term
Life Table (R0)
Definition
Net reproductive rate - the average number of offspring produced by an individual within its lifetime. Sum of "lxmx"
Term
R(0)
Definition
Less than one, a population is declining, equal to one, the population is stable, greater than one, the population is increasing.
Term
Geometric Rate of Increase
Definition
λ = N(t+1)/N(t) --> the ration of population size at two points in time. Will equal R(0) in species with non-overlapping generations.
Term
Exponential Model Assumptions
Definition
Constant birth and death, therefore constant "r" or rate of increase
Term
Logistic Model Assumptions
Definition
Relationship between density and the birth and death rates is linear, and carrying capacity is constant, because the resource base is constant
Term
Lotka Volterra Model
Definition
Models interspecific competition to predict the outcome using a zero growth isocline
Term
Zero Growth Isocline
Definition
The outside line settles at K and the inside line goes extinct.
Term
Exploitative Interactions
Definition
One species benefits while the other suffers.
Term
Herbivore
Definition
Eat plants or plant parts
Term
Parasite
Definition
Use their host as both habitat and food
Term
Pathogens
Definition
Causes disease that harms the infected host
Term
Predators
Definition
Kill and consume their prey
Term
Parasitoids
Definition
Complete part of their life cyle in their host and then kill them.
Term
Mutualistic Interactions
Definition
The fitness of both species is increased
Term
Plant - Pollinator
Definition
Plant is pollinated, animal is fed
Term
Plant - Seed
Definition
Plant gets seed dispersal, animal gets food (eating the fruit)
Term
Relative Species Abundance
Definition
How much more of less abundant one species is than another
Term
Shannon - Wiener Index
Definition
A model of species richness and relative abundance in a community
Term
Keystone Species
Definition
Species which influence community structure despite their low biomass
Term
Dominant Species
Definition
Species which influence community structure because of their high biomass
Term
Primary Production
Definition
The conversion of inorganic forms of energy into biomass by autotrophs in an ecosystem
Term
GPP (Gross Primary Production)
Definition
The total amount of energy converted to biomass by all of the autotrophs in an ecosystem
Term
NPP (Net Primary Production)
Definition
The total amount of energy accumulated by producers in their tissues
Term
Bottom Up Control
Definition
When climate and nutrients influence ecosystems through primary production
Term
Top Down Control
Definition
Consumers influence the ecosystems from above
Term
Succession
Definition
The gradual change in a community after a disturbance or the creation of a new substrate
Term
Primary Succession
Definition
Occurs in sterile, inorganic substrates
Term
Secondary Succession
Definition
Occurs where the established vegetation is changed or disturbed in some way
Term
Climax Community
Definition
The end of the successional process
Term
Facilitation
Definition
Early species enhance the establishment of later species
Term
Tolerance
Definition
Early species have no effect on later species
Term
Inhibition
Definition
Early species inhibit the establishment of later species
Term
Ecological Stability
Definition
Persistence in the face of change
Term
Resistance
Definition
How a community or ecosystem maintains structure and or function in the face of change
Term
Resilience
Definition
How a community or ecosystem returns to its former state after a change
Term
Landscape
Definition
A heterogeneous area composed of several distinct patches
Term
Metapopulation
Definition
A group of populations that are connected by the exchange of individuals among the populations: each patch must support a breeding subpopulation, no single population is large enough to persist over the long term, colonization, extinction, recolonization events are asynchronous
Term
Island Species Richness
Definition
Can be modeled as a balance between species colonization and extinction
Term
Species Richness vs. Area
Definition
The larger the area, the greater the species richness
Term
Bioaccumulation
Definition
Polutants persist in the biotic and abiotic environment - toxins build up in the top predators
Term
Harvesting
Definition
High yields from populations below K, fixed quota strategies are not sustainable, since populations fluxuate, while variable techniques are the best
Term
SLOSS Debate
Definition
Single, Large is better if the small reserves support the same species as the large, while Several, Small is better if the small reserves support different species from the large
Term
Corridors (Conservation)
Definition
Allow populations to be more resilient to local extinction, and counteract negative effects of fragmentation, but can allow undesirable species to spread easily, and can allow catastrophic disturbances (like forest fires) to spread between fragments
Term
Age of Universe
Definition
14 Billion years
Term
Age of Earth
Definition
4.2 - 4.6 Billion years
Term
Radiometric Dating
Definition
Half lives, decay
Term
Eartly Earth Conditions
Definition
Molten crust, no oxygen, high sulfur, volcanic eruptions, bombardment.
Term
Miller Urey Experiments
Definition
Methane, water, ammonia, hydrogen, carbon dioxide = amino acids and sugars. Clay medium
Term
Darwin's Evolution
Definition
Proposed that organisms change over time and adapt to their environment due to adaptive forces, the inheritance of acquired characters.
Term
Epigenetics
Definition
Changes in phenotype caused by genomic imprinting (not a change in DNA sequence)
Term
Homologous Structures
Definition
Structures across species which seem to have the same strucutre and relative function (vertebrate forelimbs - bat wings vs. human hand)
Term
Vestigal Structures
Definition
Human tailbone, goose bumps, appendix, etc.
Term
Adaptive Radiation
Definition
A single lineage that undergoes rapid speciate showing ecological and phenotypic diversity
Term
Covergent Evolution
Definition
Independent evolution of similar phenotypes for organisms living in similar environments
Term
Genotype
Definition
The genetic makeup of an organism
Term
Phenotype
Definition
The appearance of an organism, the result of the expression of the genotype, which can be influenced by the environment
Term
Somatic Cells
Definition
Body cells, not inherited
Term
Germline Cells
Definition
Cells in the gametes, inherited
Term
Point Mutations
Definition
Nucleotide substitutions
Term
Insertions and Deletions
Definition
Addition of removal of nucleotides
Term
Chromosomal Mutations
Definition
Changes in gene position, amount of DNA, chromosome number
Term
Flow of Information in Cell
Definition
Replication, DNA, Transcription, mRNA, Ribosome, Translation, Protein
Term
Properties of Genetic Code
Definition
Universal, redundant, unambiguous
Term
Synonymous Point Mutations
Definition
Silent, no aa change
Term
Nonsynonymous
Definition
Alterating - Misense = from one aa to another, Nonsense = codon to stop
Term
Indels
Definition
Insertions and deletions including the removal or addition of one or more nucleotides which can lead to a frameshift mutation.
Term
Genetic Isolation
Definition
Reduces or eliminates gene flow between populations which results in evolutionary independence of the populations
Term
Physical Isolation
Definition
Barrier to gene flow between populations
Term
Allopatric Speciation
Definition
Physcial isolation causes isolated populations to experience different environmental conditions and natural selection leads to genetic changes
Term
Vicariance
Definition
A continuous habitat is separated and the populations isolated
Term
Incomplete Isolation
Definition
If diverged species come back in contact hybridization can occur resulting in the complete reintegration of the populations to the formation of a new hybrid species distinct from the parent. This depends on the relative fitness of the parent species and the hybrid species
Term
Reinforcement
Definition
Natural selection that the reduces the frequency of hybrids (promotes nonrandom mating)
Term
Character Displacement
Definition
In an area where two closely related species are sympatric, characters that differentiate them may be more different than they are in areas where the species do not live together
Term
Bipedalism
Definition
Arose 4.4 mya
Term
Human Traits
Definition
Long limbs, opposable big toe, bipedalism, smaller canine teeth
Term
Tool Use
Definition
3.4 mya
Term
Homo Genus Originates
Definition
2.4 mya
Term
Solar Radiation
Definition
The closer an area is to the poles, the smaller the angle of the sun’s rays to the surface of the earth.
Seasons = angle of the planet
Term
Autotrophs
Definition
(self-feeding)= green plants and some bacteria use inorganic sources of energy.
Term
Heterotrophs
Definition
(other-feeders)= decomposers and animals – use organic sources of energy.
Term
Primary Production
Definition
production by autotrophs (photosynthesis)
Term
Secondary Production
Definition
production by heterotrophs (consumption of plants or animals)
Term
Food Chain
Definition
Plant, Herbivore, Carnivore system
Term
Food Chain
Definition
Plant, Herbivore, Carnivore system
Term
Decomposers
Definition
feed on plant and animal remains and feces, breaking them down into nutritive salts.
Term
ENERGY in Food Chain
Definition
Energy is consumed in each link of the food chain.

There is less energy for each following link.

This is because some of the energy is used to perform work and respiration, and is lost as heat.
Term
Food Webs
Definition
Intertwined food chains
Term
Trophic Levels
Definition
Trophic levels allow us to picture the flow of energy through an ecosystem.
(Primary, Secondary)
Term
Populations
Definition
a group of individuals of the same species living together in an area, potentially interbreeding.
Term
Population Growth
Definition
A population in ideal conditions with unlimited resources could show unlimited growth.

In reality, many factors slow population growth:

Weather
Food shortage
Disease
Competition
Predators
Lack of space, etc.
Term
Carrying Capacity (K)
Definition
The maximum number of individuals supported by the environment - population size oscillates around this value
Term
Community
Definition
The sum of populations of various species living in a given biotope is a community.
Term
Biomass
Definition
The weight of living organisms per unit area is called the biomass.

Biomass does not necessarily reflect productivity.
Term
Habitat
Definition
"address"
Term
Niche
Definition
Niche includes not only where an organism lives, but its function or role in the ecosystem.
"profession"
Term
Ecosystem
Definition
The combination of animal and plant communities, and their physical surroundings
Term
Terrestrial
Definition
Land ecosystems
Term
Limnic
Definition
Freshwater ecosystems
Term
Marine
Definition
Sea water ecosystems
Term
Species Diversity (Ecosystems)
Definition
Highest in tropics, declines as you move toward the poles.
"Stratification"
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