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BIOL 201
Unit 4
162
Biology
Undergraduate 2
04/21/2017

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Term
Write out the overall chemical equation for cellular respiration.
Definition
C6H12O6 + O2 -> CO2 + H2O + ATP
Term
During cellular respiration, which molecule(s) is oxidized? Which is reduced?
Definition
Glucose is oxidized, oxygen is reduced
Term
Explain the benefits of gradual energy release over explosive energy release.
Definition
gradual energy release is more efficient because cells are able to capture all the energy released vs explosions where the energy is released all at once, and cells cannot capture all of the released energy
Term
Explain why ATP is used as an energy shuttle in cells. Where is the energy stored in ATP?
Definition
because ATP has 3 phosphates and phosphates are extremely electronegative, ATP has an enormous potential energy & works well to store and transport that energy. The energy in ATP is stored in the chemical bonds between phosphate groups
Term
Write out the parts of cellular respirations metabolic pathway.
Definition
Glycolysis -> oxidation of pyruvate -> Kreb's cycle -> oxidative phosphorylation
Term
Explain the statement “you exhale your burnt food.”
Definition
CO2 is a biproduct of cellular respiration (extracting energy from glucose molecules) and we exhale CO2 to get rid of it
Term
Where does glucose enter cellular respiration? What happens to glucose?
Definition
Glycolysis (the first step of cellular respiration) breaks 1 glucose molecule in half, resulting in 2 pyruvates, 2 NADH & 2 ATP
Term
What is pyruvate? When is it produced? What does a cell do with pyruvate during cellular respiration?
Definition
A pyruvate is a 3-carbon molecule formed by hydrolizing a glucose molecule. If a cell continues with cellular respiration, pyruvates are further oxidized to produce NADH & the biproduct CO2. What is left of the pyruvate is Acetyl-CoA
Term
Explain the relationship between NAD+ & NADH (and FAD & FADH2). What is their function within cellular respiration?
Definition
NAD+ is an electron acceptor & NADH is the reduced form of NAD+. Together they act as an electron shuttle during cellular respiration. FAD & FADH2 are analogous to NAD+ & FADH2
Term
What is acetyl-CoA? When is it produced? What does a cell do with acetyl-CoA during cellular respiration?
Definition
Acetyl-CoA is the oxidized form of a pyruvate formed during pyruvate oxidation. It is stored as fatty acids and is necessary as the fuel source for the Krebs cycle
Term
How is acetyl-CoA & cellular respiration related to fat accumulation in animals?
Definition
Acetyl-CoA is stored as triglycerides (fat synthesis) and can be chopped up for ATP production
Term
What is the citric acid cycle? What happens during the citric acid cycle? What are the major products of the citric acid cycle?
Definition
The citric acid cycle (aka the Krebs cycle) is the electron harvesting portion of cellular respiration. It oxidizes acetyl-CoA to produce 1 ATP, 3 NADH, 1 FADH2, & 2 CO2 as a biproduct
Term
What is the electron transport chain? Where is it located? Where does it get its electrons from?
Definition
the ETC is a series of membrane proteins organized in a row located in the inner membrane of the mitochondria. NADH & FADH2 drop electrons off at different points in the ETC.
Term
What is the electron transport chain using the electrons for? And where do those electrons end up?
Definition
the ETC uses electrons as a dam uses water. The flow of electrons turns the rotor in the intermembrane space, pumping H+ ions out of the intermembrane space to create a steep H+ gradient and generate ATP. At the end of the ETC electrons are picked up by oxygen, the terminal electron acceptor
Term
Explain the relationship between active transport, diffusion, biological membranes and the production of ATP.
Definition
active transport of electrons powers proton (H+) pumps in the intermembrane space of the mitochondria. The pump generates a proton gradient. the diffusion of protons through ATP synthase then generates mechanical energy in the form of ATP
Term
Explain how the production of ATP is obeying the first law of thermodynamics.
Definition
Energy is not being created by the ETC; diffusion of protons is causing ATP synthase to spin, which transforms potential energy into chemical energy
Term
Explain the relationship between ATP production and weight loss (or weight gain).
Definition
When we need ATP but don't have enough of it, our cells generate ATP from the oxidation of acetyl-CoA, stored in fat as triglyceride (weight loss). When we have access ATP our cells "pack away" acetyl-CoA as triglycerides in fat for later use (weight gain)
Term
What is fermentation? How is it different than cellular respiration? How is fermentation similar to cellular respiration?
Definition
fermentation is partial oxidation of organic fuel in the absence of oxygen. Cellular respiration requires oxygen, whereas fermentation does not. They are alike in that they both begin with glycolysis, resulting in the production of a pyruvate
Term
What are the 2 major types of fermentation we discussed? How are they similar? How are they different?
Definition
Alcoholic fermentation and lactic acid fermentation. They both take an H molecule from NADH. Lactic acid fermentation yields lactate and 2 ATP & its terminal electron receptor is pyruvate. Alcohol fermentation yields ethanol, CO2, & 2 ATP & its terminal electron acceptor is acetaldehyde (C2H4O).
Term
Explain the relationship between photosynthesis, cellular respiration and decomposition (the carbon cycle).
Definition
Photosynthesis and cellular respiration are essentially inverse processes. The products of cellular respiration are the reactants for photosynthesis, and vise versa. Organic carbon cycle through these processes, and are recycled to the ecosystem for further use when an organism dies by decomposers.
Term
Catabolic Pathway
Definition
break down molecules and produce energy
Term
Anabolic Pathway
Definition
synthesize molecules and require energy
Term
Metabolism
Definition
the sum of all chemical processes occurring within a living cell or organism
Term
Coupled Reaction
Definition
free energy of a thermodynamically favourable reaction (such as the hydrolysis of ATP) is used to 'drive' a thermodynamically unfavourable one, by coupling or 'mechanistically joining' the two reactions
Term
Oxidation
Definition
loss of an electron by a molecule or atom
Term
Reduction
Definition
gain of an electron by a molecule or atom
Term
Redox Reaction
Definition
a type of chemical reaction that involves a transfer of electrons between two species
Term
Adenosine Triphosphate
Definition
ATP; molecule that is used to drive almost all cellular endergonic reactions
Term
Glycolysis
Definition
a series of reactions occurring in the cytosol that breaks one glucose molecules into 2 pyruvates & produces a little bit of ATP
Term
Pyruvate
Definition
a three-carbon molecule that is the end product of glycolysis; each glucose molecule yields two pyruvate molecules
Term
NAD+
Definition
electron acceptor throughout cellular respiration
Term
NADH
Definition
electron donor that drops off at the electron transport chain
Term
Acetyl-CoA
Definition
the product of the transition reaction between glycolysis and the Krebs cycle. Pyruvate is oxidized to acetyl-CoA by NAD+, also producing CO2, and NADH
Term
Citric Acid Cycle
Definition
Krebs cycle; oxidizes the organic fuel supplied by acetyl-CoA; uses the last of the carbons from the original glucose molecule
Term
FAD
Definition
a cofactor that acts as a soluble (not membrane-bound) electron carrier (can be reversibly oxidized and reduced)
Term
FADH2
Definition
a cofactor that acts as a soluble (not membrane-bound) electron carrier (can be reversibly oxidized and reduced)
Term
Electron Transport Chain
Definition
the passage of energetic electrons through a series of membrane-associated electron-carrier molecules to proton pumps embedded within mitochondrial or chloroplast membranes
Term
Proton Pumps
Definition
protein pump powered by movement of electrons that pumps protons from the matrix into the intermembrane space (active transport)
Term
Terminal Electron Acceptor
Definition
molecule at the end of the ETC that picks up electrons that have been stripped of energy by the ETC
Term
ATP Synthase
Definition
The enzyme responsible for producing ATP in oxidative phosphorylation; it uses the energy from a proton gradient to catalyze the reaction ADP + Pi → ATP
Term
Mitochondrial Matrix
Definition
the substance occupying the space enclosed by the inner membrane of a mitochondrion; it contains enzymes, filaments of DNA, granules, and inclusions of protein crystals, glycogen, and lipid
Term
Adenosine Diphosphate
Definition
An organic compound that is composed of adenosine and two phosphate groups. With the addition of another phosphate group, it is converted to ATP for the storage of energy during cell metabolism
Term
Diffusion
Definition
The net movement of dissolved molecules or other particles from a region where they are more concentrated to a region where they are less concentrated
Term
Oxidative Phosphorylation
Definition
Synthesis of ATP by ATP synthase using energy from a proton gradient. The proton gradient is generated by electron transport, which requires oxygen
Term
Fermentation
Definition
The enzyme-catalyzed extraction of energy from organic compounds without the involvement of oxygen
Term
Lactic Acid
Definition
biproduct of lactic acid fermentation
Term
Alcohol
Definition
An organic compound containing one or more hydroxyl groups bound to a saturated carbon atom
Term
Carbon Cycling
Definition
the cyclical movement of organic carbon molecules throughout ecosystems
Term
Photosynthesis
Definition
capturing light energy & converting it to chemical energy
Term
Carbon Fixation
Definition
The conversion of CO2 into organic compounds during photosynthesis
Term
What is the chemical equation for photosynthesis?
Definition
CO2 + H2O -> C6H12O6 + O2
Term
How does the chemical equation for photosynthesis compare to the equation for cellular respiration?
Definition
Photosynthesis is the opposite of cellular respiration
Term
Where does gas exchange occur in plants? Photosynthesis? Water uptake? Where does water get used?
Definition
Stomata on leaves are responsible for gas exchange and photosynthesis; roots take up water from the soil and transport it up the stem and to the leaves for use in photosynthesis
Term
During gas exchange in plants, which gas(es) are diffusing into the plant and which gas(es) are diffusing out of the plant? Compare that to gas exchange in your lungs. Is it the same or is it different?
Definition
CO2 is diffusing into the leaves and H2O & O2 is diffusing out of the leaves. In our lungs, we are diffusing O2 in and CO2 out
Term
What is the role of chlorophyll in photosynthesis? Where would you find chlorophyll?
Definition
Chlorophyll is responsible for absorbing and capturing energy from sunlight. Chlorophyll is found in the thylakoid sacs of the chloroplast
Term
What are the light reactions? Where do they occur?
Definition
Photosynthesis; takes place in the chloroplasts of the plant cell
Term
What are the input/reactant molecules in the light reactions? What are the output/product molecules of the light reactions?
Definition
Input reactants: light, water, ADP & NADP+
Output products: O2, ATP & NADPH
Term
What is the Calvin cycle? Where does it occur?
Definition
The Calvin cycle absorbs high energy electrons & uses them to form C-C bonds. It occurs in the stroma
Term
What are the input/reactant molecules in the Calvin cycle? What are the output/product molecules of the Calvin cycle?
Definition
Input: CO2, ATP & NADPH
Output: sugar, ADP, NADP+ & inorganic phosphate
Term
How are the light reactions and the calvin cycle interconnected, or how are they related to each other?
Definition
Light reactions convert light energy into chemical energy, which is then used by the Calvin cycle to convert CO2 into sugars
Term
Does being photosynthetic mean that plants do not have to go through cellular respiration? Why or why not?
Definition
It does not; being photosynthetic means you can generate your own organic compounds from sunlight for cellular respiration instead of ingesting the organic compounds of another organism
Term
Describe the process of carbon fixation.
Definition
Photosynthesis captures light, which is then converted into chemical energy. That chemical energy is used to drive the Calvin cycle, allowing CO2 to be converted into sugars
Term
Explain how the metabolic processes of photosynthesis and cellular respiration are interconnected, and how do those metabolic processes relate to the cycling of matter and the flow of energy through ecosystems?
Definition
Photosynthesis uses water and CO2 + light energy to create glucose. Heterotrophs can then consume the plant to use its glucose by means of cellular respiration, which gives off water and CO2
Term
Photosynthesis
Definition
the process by which green plants and some other organisms use sunlight to synthesize foods from carbon dioxide and water
Term
Chloroplast
Definition
A cell-like organelle present in algae and plants that contains chlorophyll (and usually other pigments) and carries out photosynthesis
Term
Stomata
Definition
in plants, a minute opening bordered by guard cells in the epidermis of leaves and stems
Term
Mesophyll
Definition
The photosynthetic parenchyma of a leaf, located within the epidermis
Term
Roots
Definition
responsible for water uptake, as well as energy storage during winter
Term
Photons
Definition
A particle of light having a discrete amount of energy
Term
Chlorophyll
Definition
one of the pigments responsible for absorbing energy from sunlight; responsible for the pigment of plants; found in the chloroplast
Term
Thylakoid membrane
Definition
In chloroplasts, a complex, organized internal membrane composed of flattened disks, which contain the photosystems involved in the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis
Term
Light Reactions
Definition
In photosynthesis, the reactions in which light energy is captured and used in production of ATP and NADPH
Term
Calvin Cycle
Definition
The dark reactions of C3 photo-synthesis
Term
NADP+
Definition
A coenzyme that occurs in many living cells and functions as an electron acceptor like NAD but reacts with different metabolites
Term
NADPH
Definition
In metabolism, involved in redox reactions, carrying electrons from one reaction to another
Term
G3P
Definition
3-carbon chain; takes 2 G3P to make one glucose molecule
Term
Photosystem 1
Definition
the 2nd ETC that transfers electrons to NADP+ to generate NADPH
Term
Photosystem 2
Definition
the 1st ETC which generates a proton gradient that powers ATP synthase
Term
Carbon Fixation
Definition
The conversion of CO2 into organic compounds during photosynthesis
Term
ruBP
Definition
In the Calvin cycle RuBP is the 5-carbon organic compound that attaches to CO2 producing two molecules of 3-PGA and therefore the process of photosynthesis continues
Term
Rubisco
Definition
an enzyme present in plant chloroplasts, involved in fixing atmospheric carbon dioxide during photosynthesis
Term
Producers
Definition
anything that photosynthesizes
Term
Consumers
Definition
anything that consumers other organisms for organic material
Term
What are the functions of cell division?
Definition
1. to make more cells- to grow, repair &/or maintain
2. to reproduce - to produce the next generation of organisms
Term
What are the functions of mitosis?
Definition
to generate genetically identical offspring
Term
Explain the relationship between an organism’s genome & chromosomes.
Definition
the genome is the total amount of DNA within a cell, while a chromosome is how those DNA molecules are packaged inside the cell
Term
What is the difference between a chromosome & a chromatid?
Definition
A chromatid is half of a duplicated chromosome; two chromatids make up one chromosome during cell division
Term
What is the centromere & where would you find it?
Definition
the place where the two sister chromatids are most closely attached; it is not necessarily found at the middle of the chromosome
Term
What are the phases of mitosis?
Definition
Interphase (G1, S, G2), M phase (prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telephase), Cytokinesis
Term
What is cytokinesis? How is it different in animals than in plants?
Definition
the division of the cytoplasm & organelles; in animals, a cleavage furrow forms & pinches the cell in two; in plants, the cell plate forms, dividing the cell in half
Term
What is the difference between somatic cells/tissues & gametes?
Definition
somatic cells are non-reproductive diploid cells; gametes are sexually reproductive haploid cells
Term
How does mitosis relate to cancer?
Definition
cancer is a result of a loss of cell cycle control - cells divide unchecked & form tumors that can spread into other tissues
Term
What is meant by malignant vs. benign? How does that relate to individual cells?
Definition
malignant: cells spread into neighboring tissues
bengin: cells remain at original site
if even one malignant tumor spreads to another tissue, cell growth will continue unchecked
Term
What types of organisms can/could get cancer?
Definition
any multicellular organism
Term
Growth
Definition
the irreversible increase in the dry mass of an organism brought about by an increase in cell size or number
Term
Reproduction
Definition
biological process by which new individual organisms – "offspring" – are produced from their "parents"
Term
Genome
Definition
the total amount of DNA within a cell
Term
Chromosome
Definition
1 molecule of DNA & its associated proteins; how the DNA molecules are packaged inside cells
Term
Somatic Cell
Definition
non-reproductive diploid cells (skin, muscle, leaf) of multicellular organisms produced by mitosis
Term
Gamete
Definition
reproductive haploid cells (sperm, egg, pollen) of sexually reproducing, multicellular organisms produced by meiosis
Term
Mitosis
Definition
division of the nucleus & the genome; results in 2 genetically identical daughter cells
Term
Meiosis
Definition
division of the nucleus & the genome; results in 4 genetically unique daughter cells with 1/2 of DNA as the parent cell
Term
Cytokinesis
Definition
division of the cytoplasm & organelles
Term
Sister Chromatids
Definition
1/2 of a duplicated chromosome; 2 sister chromatids contain identical DNA
Term
Centromere
Definition
place where the two sister chromatids are most closely attached
Term
DNA replication
Definition
the process by which a double-stranded DNA molecule is copied to produce two identical DNA molecules
Term
Interphase
Definition
~90% of cell cycle
consists of G1 phase, S phase, G2 phase
nuclear envelope is present, nucleolus is present, individual chromosomes are not present, basic cellular functions are ongoing & continuous
Term
G1 Phase
Definition
cellular contents, excluding chromosomes, are duplicated
Term
S phase
Definition
DNA is replicated by enzymes
each chromosome now has 2 sister chromatids held together by a single centromere
Term
G2 phase
Definition
the cell "double checks" the duplicated chromosomes for any error, & either proceeds to M phase or destroys the cell
Term
M phase
Definition
begins after G2 of interphase is complete
shortest phase of the cell
4 phases of mitosis + cytokinesis: prophase, metaphase, anaphase & telophase
Term
Centrioles
Definition
divides and organizes spindle fibers during mitosis and meiosis
Term
Nucleolus
Definition
the site of rRNA synthesis
Term
Mitotic Spindle
Definition
the macromolecular machine that segregates chromosomes to two daughter cells during mitosis
Term
Prophase
Definition
The phase of cell division that begins when the condensed chromosomes become visible and ends when the nuclear envelope breaks down. The assembly of the spindle takes place
Term
Metaphase
Definition
The stage of mitosis or meiosis during which microtubules become organized into a spindle and the chromosomes come to lie in the spindle's equatorial plane
cells dividing wrong are terminated
Term
Metaphase plate
Definition
An imaginary plane perpendicular to the spindle fibers of a dividing cell, along which chromosomes align during metaphase
Term
Anaphase
Definition
In mitosis and meiosis II, the stage initiated by the separation of sister chromatids, during which the daughter chromosomes move to opposite poles of the cell; in meiosis I, marked by separation of replicated homologous chromosomes
Term
Telephase
Definition
The phase of cell division during which the spindle breaks down, the nuclear envelope of each daughter cell forms, and the chromosomes uncoil and become diffuse
Term
Cleavage Furrow
Definition
the indentation of the cell's surface that begins the progression of cleavage, by which animal and some algal cells undergo cytokinesis
Term
Cell Plate
Definition
plate that develops at the midpoint between the two groups of chromosomes in a dividing cell and that is involved in forming the wall between the two new daughter cells
Term
Clone
Definition
A cell, group of cells, or organism that is produced asexually from and is genetically identical to a single ancestor
Term
Cancer
Definition
The unrestrained growth and division of cells; it results from a failure of cell division control
Term
Tumor
Definition
proliferation of cancerous cells
Term
Benign Tumor
Definition
cells remain at original site
Term
Malignant Tumor
Definition
cells spread into neighboring tissues
Term
Metastasis
Definition
The process by which cancer cells move from their point of origin to other locations in the body
Term
What cells are diploid and what cells are haploid in the life cycle of sexually reproducing cells?
Definition
The parent cell at the beginning of meiosis I is diploid. The 2 daughter cells at the end of meiosis I are both haploid. The parent and daughter cells of meiosis II are all haploid
Term
What is/are the difference between asexual and sexual reproduction?
Definition
asexual reproduction has 1 parent and results in genetically identical offspring; sexual reproduction requires 2 parents and results in offspring with a unique combination of genes inherited from both parents
Term
What is the relationship between genes and alleles? Explain the relationship between alleles and homologous chromosomes.
Definition
an allele is an alternate version of a gene; homologous chromosomes have the same genes but different alleles
Term
Describe the event that occurs during Prophase I that is a critical part of generating genetic diversity. Explain the relationship of this event to homologous chromosomes.
Definition
homologous chromosomes pair up (synapsis) and exchange segments of DNA (crossing over). This essentially "stirs the genetic pot" resulting in unique combinations of alleles
Term
Genetic variation is produced in 4 basic ways. What are they? Which one(s) are exclusive to sexually reproducing organisms?
Definition
1. mutation
2. crossing over during prophase I
3. independent assortment during metaphase I
4. random fertilization
crossing over, independent assortment, & random fertilization are exclusive to sexually reproducing organisms
Term
Where in an animal does meiosis occur? What are the products of meiosis called, in animals?
Definition
meiosis only occurs in reproductive cells, called gametes (egg or sperm in animals)
Term
What is independent assortment? When during meiosis does it occur? Describe the relationship between independent assortment and homologous chromosomes.
Definition
independent assortment is when homologous chromosomes assort independently during metaphase I. Each random assortment is equally likely & possible & contributes to genetic diversity
Term
Asexual Reproduction
Definition
a single individual is the only parent & passes all of its genes to its offspring, resulting in a genetically identical individual
Term
Sexual Reproduction
Definition
two parents give rise to offspring with unique combinations of genes inherited from both parents
Term
Fertilization
Definition
fusion of a haploid sperm & a haploid egg
Term
Zygote
Definition
the result of fertilization; is diploid
Term
Variation
Definition
offspring differ in appearance from their parents & their siblings
Term
Heredity
Definition
transmission of traits from one generation to the next
Term
Genetics
Definition
scientific study of heredity & hereditary variation
Term
Ploidy
Definition
number of copies, or sets, of each chromosome
Term
Diploid
Definition
two copies, or sets, of each chromosome (2n)
Term
Haploid
Definition
one copy, or set, of each chromosome (n)
Term
Homologous Chromosomes
Definition
chromosomes that are the same length, have the centromere at the same position, & carry the same set of genes along their length; a pair of chromosomes that carry equivalent genes
Term
Genes
Definition
hereditary units that equal segments of DNA along the length of chromosomes
Term
Alleles
Definition
alternate forms of the same gene
Term
Locus/Loci
Definition
a gene's specific location along the length of a chromosome; alleles of a particular gene are located at the same locus on homologous chromosomes
Term
Prophase I
Definition
phase of meiosis I where synapsis of homologous chromosomes takes place as well as crossing over
Term
Synapsis
Definition
pairing up of homologous chromosomes
Term
Crossing over/recombination
Definition
homologous chromosomes exchange segments of DNA to increase genetic diversity
Term
Tetrad
Definition
a group of two homologous chromosomes, each consisting of two sister chromatids
Term
Metaphase I
Definition
tetrads line up on metaphase plate; homologs are physically held together
Term
Anaphase I
Definition
homologous chromosomes are pulled apart & migrate to opposite poles
Term
Telophase I
Definition
chromosomes arrive at poles; sister chromatids are stilled attached; daughter cells are now haploid
Term
Prophase II
Definition
begins with haploid cells; meiotic spindle forms & centrioles migrate to opposite poles
Term
Metaphase II
Definition
chromosomes align along metaphase plate & spindle fibers attach to centromeres
Term
Anaphase II
Definition
sister chromatids separate at centromere; each sister chromatid is now a chromosome
Term
Telophase II
Definition
4 genetically distinct haploid daughter cells are produced
Term
Independent Assortment
Definition
homologous chromosomes assort independently during metaphase I; each random assortment is equally likely & possible
Term
Random Fertilization
Definition
which haploid sperm fertilizes which haploid egg is entirely random
Term
Mutation
Definition
A permanent change in a cell's DNA; includes changes in nucleotide sequence, alteration of gene position, gene loss or duplication, and insertion of foreign sequences
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