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BIOL 111 test 3
n/a
207
Biology
Undergraduate 1
04/30/2010

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Term
destroy pathogen-infected and cancer cells by apoptosis
Definition
NK cells
Term
___ cells are stimulated by cytokines, Fc receptor binding, and a variety of other receptors.
Definition
NK
Term
NK cells work with ____ to clean up the apoptotic cellular debris
Definition
macrophages
Term
rapid, local response to damage or infection
Definition
inflammation
Term
during the inflammatory response, affected cells release ___
Definition
cytokines
Term
4 steps of the inflammatory response
Definition
cells release cytokines :: blood vessels dilate to increase flow & deliver more WBCs :: storage of iron in liver :: body temp raises
Term
immature macrophage that is transported through the blood
Definition
monocyte
Term
at what point does a monocyte become a macrophage?
Definition
when it is released during chemotaxis
Term
the ____ system consists of numerous proteins that circulate in the blood in an inactive form
Definition
complement
Term
cascade of events in upon activation of complement
Definition
one set of complement proteins activates another set, which activates another set :: some proteins aggregate to form MAC (membrane attach complex) on the surface of the pathogen :: Activates adaptive immunity :: opsonization
Term
___ pokes holes in a pathogen with porforins and causes fluid to enter due to change in water potential so the cell swells and bursts
Definition
MAC - membrane attack complex
Term
during opsonization, ___ coats the surface of invading pathogens and tags the cells for destruction by macrophages
Definition
C3b
Term
example of an opsonin
Definition
B cell antibodies and complement proteins
Term
where do dendritic cells reside?
Definition
places where pathogens invade - skin
Term
dendritic cells are part of which immune system/
Definition
innate
Term
___ cells bind an antigen and ingest it by phagocytosis
Definition
dendritic
Term
___ layer is a non-specific barrier that surrounds all potential areas of bacterial entry
Definition
epithelial
Term
___ is the first immune defense
Definition
epithelium
Term
proteins designed to break down bacterial cell walls. these are secreted by ____.
Definition
lysosymes -- epithelial tissue
Term
3 things secreted by epithelial cells
Definition
lysosymes, mucus (to trap stuff), acids (hard env for bacteria to live in)
Term
1st, 2nd, 3rd line of defense
Definition
epithelium/skin :: innate immune system :: adaptive immune system
Term
molecule on a foreign object that provokes an immune response
Definition
antigen
Term
distinct molecular feature (shape or sequence) of an antigen that binds to an immune molecule -- turn, helix, etc of the antigen that binds to an immune receptor
Definition
epitope
Term
antigens are usually ___ or ___
Definition
proteins or polysaccharides
Term
each ____ of an antigen can stimulate a different response
Definition
epitope
Term
Types and arrangements of macromolecules commonly used by pathogens but not mammals -- allow the body to recognize non-self molecules
Definition
Pathogen Associated Molecular Patterns (PAMPs)
Term
dsRNA, lipopolysaccharide, mannose-rich carbs, peptidoglycan -- examples of ?
Definition
PAMPs
Term
innate immune system recognizes ____
Definition
PAMPs, not specific epitopes
Term
receptors on cells of the innate immune system that recognizes PAMPs
Definition
PRRs (Pattern Recognition Receptors)
Term
2 types of PRRs
Definition
endocytic PRR - signals cell to become phagocytotic ::: signaling PRR - stimulates signal transduction that leads to change in gene expression to activate other parts of the immune system
Term
adaptive immunity uses ___, ___, and ___ to detect specific epitopes
Definition
T cell Receptors, b cell receptors, and MHC molecules
Term
___ are growth factors (pleiotropic, protein/peptide-based) the primary signaling molecules in immunity
Definition
cytokines
Term
what is the significance of the fact that cytokines are pleiotropic?
Definition
a single cytokine can have multiple effects on multiple different cells
Term
___ are produced by cells in response to infection -- stimulates immune system to "start up"
Definition
cytokines
Term
effects of cytokines
Definition
when exposed to non-immune cells, stimulates cells to resist infection :: chemotaxis - movement in response to a chemical-- helps immune cells to find the source of infection :: activation of leukocytes :: disrupt viral replication
Term
type of cytokine (glycoprotein) that interferes wtih viral/bacterial replication and also performs all other cytokine activities
Definition
interferon
Term
primary control mechanism of the immune system
Definition
paracrine
Term
3 components of innate immune system
Definition
leukocytes, inflammatory response, complement
Term
WBC use __ and __ to recognize foreign invaders
Definition
PAMPs and PRRs
Term
WBC that finds bacteria and engulf and destroy them
Definition
macrophages
Term
___ present antigens to notify other cells about it after they've engulfed and destroyed a foreign cell
Definition
macrophages
Term
first cell to appear at the site of infection and kill microbes by ____
Definition
neutrophils -- phagocytosis
Term
80% of WBCs are ____
Definition
neutrophils
Term
WBC that operate by killing self cells that are infected by bacteria/virus
Definition
NK cells
Term
how do NK cells kill other cells?
Definition
make hole in cell by perforins, then introduce granzymes that induce apoptosis
Term
2nd function of NK cells
Definition
detect cancer
Term
things that stimulate NK cells
Definition
cytokines, Fc receptor binding
Term
When dendritic cells capture a pathogen, they go through a morphological change... what happens?
Definition
they migrate to lymph nodes and act as APCs where they present foreign epitopes on MHC receptors to T cells
Term
Function of APCs
Definition
"runs for help" to alert adaptive immune system of infection
Term
lifecycle of a Dendritic cell
Definition
phagocytize pathogens --> present epitope of pathogen as APC --> die by apoptosis
Term
2 parts of adaptive immune system
Definition
humoral (b cells) and cell mediated (t cells)
Term
4 characteristics of adaptive immunity
Definition
specificity, diversity, memory, ability to distinguish self from non-self (innate can also do that)
Term
___ are leukocytes with specialized surface receptors for specific epitopes
Definition
lymphocytes
Term
B/T cells recognize epitopes on intact antigens, B/T cells bind to epitopes of processed antigens attached to MHC proteins
Definition
B, T
Term
____ are those that have not encountered an epitope that they can bind to yet
Definition
naive lymphocytes
Term
occurs when a naive lymphocyte binds to a specific antigen for the first time and producs clones of itself
Definition
clonal selection
Term
bind protein fragmentsinside a cell then present on the surface of a cell to T cells
Definition
MHC proteins
Term
Class __ MHC proteins are found on all cells and they present protein fragments that originate from inside the cell.
Definition
I
Term
Class __ MHC proteins are found on specialized APCs and present protein fragments only from phagocytized material
Definition
II
Term
___ T cells undergo clonal expansion and differentiation into activated cells and memory cells
Definition
Cytotoxic
Term
Activated ___ T cells induce apoptosis in cells with the same specificity as first cell -- usually a viral-infected or cancer cel
Definition
Cytotoxic
Term
___ T cells respond to exogenous antigens that are taken up by an APC and then complexed with MHC class II proteins
Definition
Helper
Term
3 factors that affect diffusion in the circulatory system
Definition
distance, concentration, temperature
Term
the practical limit to diffusion (maximum distance at which diffusion can occur)
Definition
0.5 mm
Term
why do animals have to use circulation instead of diffusion?
Definition
cells are too far apart
Term
____ transport blood away from the heart, ____ transport blood to the heart
Definition
arteries, veins ... (Arteries = Away)
Term
___ connect arteries to veins and have thin walls for gas and fluid exchange
Definition
capillaries
Term
___ can selectively regulate the flow of blood into capillaries. example of this?
Definition
precapillary sphincters -- when you're running, capillary sphincters in gut close and in legs open so you get the blood where you need it
Term
trace blood flow of pulmonary circuit
Definition
deoxygenated blood pumped to lungs from right ventricle --> gases exchanged in lung capillaries --> return to heart in left atrium
Term
Why cant we define veins and arteries in terms of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood?
Definition
pulmonary circuit: arteries carry deoxygenated blood to lungs so it can be oxygenated, veins carry oxygenated blood back to heart to be pumped to the rest of the body
Term
trace blood flow in systemic circuit
Definition
oxygenated blood is pumped to the tissues from the left ventricle --> gas exchange in tissue capillaries --> right atrium
Term
gas pressure in lungs v. tissues
Definition
Lungs: O2 is high, CO2 is low :: Tissues: O2 is low, CO2 is high
Term
partial pressure
Definition
the fraction of that gas in the total gas
Term
__ is the molecule that carries O2 in the blood
Definition
hemoglobin
Term
properties of hemoglobin
Definition
2 alpha chains, 2 beta chains, non protein heme group (makes blood red), and iron atom that binds O2 reversibly
Term
hemoglobin is found in which blood cells
Definition
RBC - carrying O2 is the only function of RBCs
Term
____ is the property of hemoglobin that when one chain binds an O2, it changes the structure of the whole molecule so the other chains will more readily bind O2 also
Definition
cooperativity
Term
consequence of cooperativity in Hb
Definition
makes Hb very sensitive to change in PO2
Term
__ is the graphical display of how Hb saturation (how many O2 are bound) changes with PO2
Definition
hemoglobin equilibrium curve
Term
the O2-loaded form of Hb
Definition
oxyhemoglobin
Term
level at which 50% of the hemoglobin is saturated with O2
Definition
P50
Term
resting v. exercising O2 levels
Definition
resting: 20% O2 in Hb delivered to tissues ... exercise: 70% of O2 delivered
Term
affect of pH and temp on affinity of Hb for O2. significance?
Definition
higher affinity = higher pH , lower temp :: during exercise, lactic acid builds up and lowers pH, also temp of body increases = Hb is more likely to release O2 to the muscles
Term
the effect that pH has on the affinity for Hb to bind to molecular O2 for any given PO2
Definition
Bohr shift
Term
how is fetal hemoglobin different than adult?
Definition
fetal has 2 gamma chains instead of beta, and it is left-shifted because it needs to saturate at a lower pressure bc the womb is a low O2 env
Term
left-shifted Hb equilibrium curve means Hb is saturated at a higher/lower pressure
Definition
lower
Term
the Hb curve of a llama is right/left-shifted?
Definition
left - Low O2 env in mountains
Term
most CO2 is carried in the blood as
Definition
bicarbonate (HCO3-)
Term
enzyme found commonly in RBCs that catalyzes the formation of carbonic acid from CO2 and H2O
Definition
carbonic anhydrase
Term
2 reasons carbonic anhydrase is important
Definition
protons produced by the carbonic anhydrase rxn (CO2+H20-->H2CO3--->HCO3+H+) induce the Bohr shift ::: PCO2 of blood drops when CO2 is converted to H2CO3, which favors entry of CO2 into RBCs so Hb can bind H+ and buffer the blood pH
Term
what is the most critical thing that plants need to grow?
Definition
Co2
Term
photosynthesis makes sugars from __ and ___
Definition
CO2 and H2O
Term
___ are extensions of epidermal cells that increase the surface area available for absorption and help the plant absorb water and nutrients from the soil
Definition
root hairs
Term
how are minerals transported throughout a plant/
Definition
ion pumps (active transport)
Term
dead tissue that conducts water and ions through hollow cylindrical cells arranged end-to-end to form a continuous tube
Definition
xylem
Term
live tissue that conducts sugars from photosynthesis
Definition
phloem
Term
vessels v. tracheids in the xylem
Definition
vessels are arranged end to end to form a continuous tube. tracheids have tapered ends that overlap to form continuous tubes
Term
___ are hollow, elongated cels with tapered ends that make up the phloem
Definition
sieve tube cells
Term
leaf gas exchange occurs through ____, openings between two guard cells
Definition
stomata
Term
what controls the opening and closing of the stomata?
Definition
water content of the guard cells
Term
water/mineral transport occurs from __ to ___. Sugar transport is the opposite.
Definition
roots to leaves
Term
the attraction of water molecules to other water molecules through H bonding
Definition
cohesion
Term
attraction of water molecules to other, non-water molecules through H bonding
Definition
adhesion
Term
Ψs
Definition
solute potential - the measure of the osmotic strength of a solution, determined by solute concentration, predictrs the direction of water flow
Term
water always moves from areas of __ Ψs to areas of __ Ψs
Definition
high to low
Term
as you add more solute to a solution, what happens to Ψs?
Definition
it lowers. pure water has Ψs=0, and that is as high as it goes.
Term
how do plants control the movement of water?
Definition
alter Ψs by adding solutes through the action of ion pumps
Term
___ is passive, non-selective movement through cell walls and the space between cells.
Definition
apoplast route
Term
____ is the continuous route through cytoplasm and plasmodesmata (the tubes that connect cells)
Definition
symplast route
Term
membrane transport between cells and across the membranes of vacuoles within cells
Definition
transmembrane route
Term
which route from epidermis to endodermis permits the greatest control (the one the plant "likes" best)
Definition
transmembrane
Term
band of cell wall material embedded with waterproof substances (suberin) that surrounds the endodermis
Definition
casparian strip
Term
___ provides control of entry into the endodermis and thereby the xylem and phloem
Definition
casparian strip
Term
osmotic pressurein the cells of the root system created by the transport of ions that allows water to enter the xylem
Definition
root pressure
Term
how does root pressure work?
Definition
it lowers the Ψs of the stele to push water into the xylem
Term
once inside the xylem, water is prevented from exiting by what?
Definition
casparian strip
Term
how does water get to the top of a tall plant?
Definition
it is pulled by TATC (transpiration adhension tension cohesion model)
Term
loss of water through the stomata occurs because the water potential of the atmosphere is low compared to plants.
Definition
transpiration
Term
how does TATC work
Definition
transpiration - creates pull due to difference in water potential between atmosphere and plant :: cohesion - narrow vessels create pressure :: Adhesion - water binds to vessel walls
Term
water's path from roots to leaves follow the increasing/decreasing water potential in different parts of the plant
Definition
decreasing
Term
xylem water transport only goes which direction?
Definition
roots to top
Term
how is transport in the phloem different from the xylem?
Definition
uses water potential/pressure to move fluid instead of TATC -- seive tube cells are alive so they can use energy for active transport
Term
which transport system uses the "source to sink" model
Definition
phloem - move from the source (where sucrose is made) to sink (where sucrose is needed) -- in spring, the roots/stems are the source and the leaves are the sink bc they need extra energy to grow
Term
the phloem/xylem acts as a closed system (like a hose connected at both ends) whereas the phloem/xylem acts as an open system (like a straw)
Definition
phloem .. xylem
Term
source to sink model
Definition
in photosynthetic areas (source) sucrose is made and is actively transported to the phloem, which lowers the Ψs of the phloem so water enters it which increases the pressure of the phloem --- this pushes the sucrose to the sink area and raises the Ψs of the phloem
Term
__ and __ are the two major control centers of the endocrine system
Definition
pituitary gland and hypothalamus
Term
direct endocrine control
Definition
activation of nonendocrine targets
Term
indirect control by endocrine system
Definition
activate other endocrine glands which produces hormones that have a direct effect on another organ
Term
the ___ is a part of the CNS that is stimulated by nerve input to produce tropic hormones for the pituitary
Definition
hypothalamus
Term
2 parts of pituitary
Definition
anterior (adenohypothesis) and posterior (neurohyopthesis)
Term
___ hormones target other endocrine glands
Definition
tropic
Term
norepineprhine is a ___... a neurotransmitter that is distributed by the blood
Definition
neurohormone
Term
2 parts of pituitary
Definition
anterior (adenohypothesis) and posterior (neurohyopthesis)
Term
hormone production and release is often regulated by what body system?
Definition
nervous
Term
2 characteristics of hormones
Definition
must be sufficiently complex to convey regulatory info to their target cells that isn't confused with other hormones :: must be adequately stable to resist destruction before reachign their target
Term
how and why do hydrophilic v. lipophilic hormones travel differently?
Definition
lipophilic: circulate in blood bound to proteins and then bind to cytoplasmic receptors -- hydrophilic: travel unassisted through blood bc blood is mostly water and bind to extracellular receptors
Term
a diverse group of fatty acids that are produced in almost every organ and regulate a variety of functions
Definition
prostaglandins
Term
the ___ are located just above each kidney and secrete catecholamine and steroid hormone
Definition
adrenal glands
Term
the ___ is the inner part of the adrenal and responds to short term stress
Definition
medulla
Term
the ___ is the outer part of the adrenal and it responds to long term stress
Definition
cortex
Term
the medulla secretes ___. how does this help deal with stress?
Definition
catecholamines (epinephrine and norepinephrine) -- have a positive feedback system (production of epinephrine causes more epinephrine to be produced) that helps body prepare for extreme efforts as part of the alarm response
Term
the adrenal cortex produces ___. how does this affect the stress response?
Definition
steroid hormones (glucocorticoids and mineralcorticoids) cortisol and aldosterone --- regulate homeostasis and mineral balance which causes water retention and weight gain during long term stress
Term
___ are material that are not part of the cell but have been injested by the cell by phagocytosis
Definition
exogenous
Term
2 types of helper T cells
Definition
effector cells (mostly) :: memory cells to remember infection
Term
Th cells downregulate the immune system through ___.
Definition
cytokines -- they tell the immune system when to stop fighting the infection
Term
B cells activated through
Definition
direct binding of antigen
Term
once a b cell is activated it does what?
Definition
goes through clonal expansion to produce copies of itself & differentiate into plasma (fight infection by producing antibodies) and memory cells
Term
___ are basically soluble forms of the B cell receptor
Definition
Igs
Term
How are b cells activated?
Definition
can activate itself but is often helped by a Th cell
Term
B Cells' immune response:
Definition
produce antibodies (Igs)
Term
Ig_'s are found as pentamers
Definition
M
Term
the four chains of an antibody are held together by __ bonds
Definition
disulfide
Term
each Ig can bind __ copies of identical epitopes
Definition
2 (one on each arm)
Term
the ___ region is the binding site for the epitope on an antibody
Definition
variable
Term
two properties of antibodies that allow them to bind multiple copies of the same epitope
Definition
agglutination and precipitation (see notecard)
Term
progression of blood flow through circulatory system
Definition
arteries --> arterioles --> capillaries --> venules --> veins
Term
3 pathways that allow water to enter the root
Definition
symplast, apoplast, transmembrane
Term
source to sink model is called the ___ model
Definition
pressure bulk flow
Term
What is the main difference between paracrine signalsa nd hormones?
Definition
paracrine signals only work locally whereas hormones can travel throughout the body
Term
main control center for the endocrine system
Definition
hypothalamus-pituitary
Term
2 types of paracrine regulators
Definition
prostaglandins and growth factors
Term
___ are fatty acids that regulate a lot of body functions that are not consciously regulated, like smooth muscle contraction
Definition
prostaglandins
Term
____ immunity involves cells and molecules that circulate in immature or inactive forms and are only activated by stimulation from innate immunityor directly from pathogen detection
Definition
adaptive
Term
primary signaling molecule of the immune system that is protein-based and serves multiple functions to signal multiple cell types
Definition
cytokines
Term
any molecule that provokes an immune attack
Definition
antigens
Term
3 types of leukocytes
Definition
macrophages, neutrophils, and NK cells
Term
when a naive B or T cell encounters a pathogen, what happens/
Definition
it produces thousands of copies of itself (clonal expansion), each capable of fighting the specific type of pathogen the original naive cell encountered
Term
B cells that are not memory cells but participate in the immediate immune response are called
Definition
plasma cells
Term
How is the great diversity of T cell receptors and immunoglobulin achieved?
Definition
somatic mutation/rearrangement. Different pieces of VDJ segments are randomly selected and joined together with each other and with two units of the C segment. Because each unit of the VDJ segment is composed of a different sequence of nucleotides, it makes a different protein every time.
Term
how many diff types of gametes could be formed if we were keeping track of three different characteristics (3 segregating loci)?
Definition
2^3 = 8
Term
how many different phenotypes are possible by keeping track of 4 different characteristics (4 segregating loci)?
Definition
2^4 = 16
Term
if a protein were to interact wtih a phosphatase enzyme, what would be the likely affect?
Definition
it would have a phosphate taken away from it
Term
if a cell finished mitosis and cytokinesis then immediately entered the cell cycle again becuase levels of cyclin remained high from the previous round of cell division, what molecule would you suspect was not functioning properly?
Definition
APC
Term
what determines the level of ploidy in a cell?
Definition
the number of homologous chromosomes
Term
which of mendel's discoveries relied on experimentation using dihybrid rather than monohybrid crosses?
Definition
principle of independent assortment
Term
cross of true breeding parents
Definition
AA v. aa
Term
if a trait varies over a continuous range, what model of inheritance would this trait possess?
Definition
polygenic inheritance
Term
damage or mutation to a gene that produces a multifunctional protein will likely have what type of inheritance
Definition
pleiotropic
Term
what model of inheritance results in the offspring exhibiting traits of both parents. ie: one parent has a big left ear, the other has a big right ear, the child has big both ears
Definition
codominance
Term
the farther apart any two linked genes are on a chromosome, the more likely you can expect to...
Definition
underestimate the genetic distance
Term
one common solution to more accurately estimate genetic distances where multiple crossovers are suspected would be to...
Definition
use 3 genetic markers instead of two
Term
___ is the enzyme responsible for putting together the fragments of the lagging strand
Definition
ligase
Term
what function removes primers during DNA replication?
Definition
5'-->3' exonuclease
Term
transversions v. transitions
Definition
substituting a purine (AG) for a pyrimidine (CTU) = transversion
Term
what type of error leads to aneuploidy
Definition
nondisjunction -- aneuploidy = wrong # of chromosomes
Term
primary structure of proteins stabilized by ___ bonds
Definition
peptide
Term
alpha helices and beta sheets stabilized by ___ bonds
Definition
hydrogen
Term
what level(s) of structure are utilized in a protein that is made of a single polypeptide chain?
Definition
1, 2, 3,
Term
alpha helices and beta sheets stabilized by ___ bonds
Definition
hydrogen
Term
what levels of structure are utilized by a protein that is made of a single polypeptide chain
Definition
1,2,3
Term
combo of some but not all components of a protein
Definition
motif
Term
level of protein structure defined by its function
Definition
domain
Term
function of ubiquitination of a protein
Definition
target for destruction
Term
which of the following is not a function of any membrane signaling receptors? activate G proteins :: initiate kinase cascade :: transport ions into a cell :: transport the signaling molecule into the cell :: bind to receptors on adjacent cells
Definition
transport signaling molecule into the cell
Term
most receptor enzymes are what type of enzyme?
Definition
kinase
Term
progression of stem cells. most potent to least.
Definition
totipotent, pluripotent, multipotent, unipotent
Term
progression of transcription factors/genes that divide up embryos.
Definition
gap -- pair-rule (7 zones) -- segment polarity -- hox
Term
a mutation in cadherin proteins will affect what process? cell migration :: cell division :: necrosis :: cell differentiation/determinatino : cleavage
Definition
cell migration
Term
afferent v effereent neurons
Definition
afferent - organs to CNS :: efferent - cns to organs
Term
if a neuron was depleted of ATP as an energy source and was not able to actively transport ions across the membrane, what feature of nerve biology would be directly affected?
Definition
resting membrane potential
Term
graded potentials have to do with ___-gated ion channels. action potentials have to do with ___-gated ion channels.
Definition
ligand :: voltage
Term
normal sequence of evens during an AP (in terms of K and Na gates)
Definition
Na activation gate opens (depolarization), Na inactivation gate closes (stop influx of na), K channel opens (repolarizaiton)
Term
lower/higher pH = more O2 released from blood
Definition
lower
Term
which are involved in transport of water and minerals from soil to top of tree? sieve tube cells, tracheids, vessels
Definition
tracheids and vessels
Term
what type of hormone responds to cytoplasmic receptors?
Definition
steroid
Term
how do Tc cells work?
Definition
induce apoptosis in infected native cells
Term
3 actions of Antibodies
Definition
precipitatin/agglutination, opsonization, preventing pathogens from progressing through their normal life cycle
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