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Bio Test 3
Chapters 8, 9, 10, 12, 13
136
Biology
Undergraduate 1
10/28/2009

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Term
What is energy?
Definition
The capacity to do work
Term
What does an organism's metabolism do?
Definition
Transforms matter and energy, which are subject to specific laws of thermodynamics
Term
What do enzymes do?
Definition
Catalyze products in the metabolic pathways
Term
What do catabolic pathways do?
Definition
Break down complex molecules into simpler compounds during a process, which releases energy.
Term
What is broken down into CO2 and H2O in the presence of O2?
Definition
Glucose is broken down during cellular respiration.
Term
What are anabolic pathways?
Definition
Pathways that build up complicated molecules from simpler ones during a process that consumes energy.
Term
What is the 1st law of thermodynamics?
Definition
Energy (or matter) can neither be created nor destroyed, but it can change form.
Term
What is kinetic energy?
Definition
Energy of motion
Term
What is potential energy?
Definition
Stored energy. This includes chemical energy stored in molecular structures (i.e. glucose)
Term
What is thermodynamics?
Definition
The study of energy transformations.
Term
What is entropy?
Definition
The quantity of disorder or randomness.
Term
What's the 2nd law of thermodynamics? 
Definition
Every energy transfer increases entropy. While order may increase locally, the universe tends towards randomness.
Term
What do living systems create?
Definition
Ordered structures from less ordered starting materials and they decrease entropy of the universe by using energy to maintain order. (i.e. amino acids which are ordered into polypeptide chains)
Term
What is a living system's free energy?
Definition
Energy that can do work under cellular conditions (constant temp./pressure)
Term
What is the free energy change? (Delta G)
Definition
A reaction that tells us whether the reaction occurs spontaneously and favorably.
Term
What do spontaneous changes not require?
Definition
Energy
Term
What is the change in free energy equation?
Definition
∆G = ∆H - T∆S
Term
What is ∆H? and ∆S?
Definition
They are the change in enthalpy and entropy respectively.
Term
What happens during a spontaneous change?
Definition
Free energy decreases while stability (order) increases.
Term
What is known if ∆G is a negative?
Definition
It is an exergonic reaction that is favorable
Term
If a system is in equilibrium what is known?
Definition
It can perform no work and will eventually die. Cells are in a constant state of disequilibrium.
Term
Exergonic reactions and endergonic reactions are based on what?
Definition
The free energy state (∆G)
Term
What does it mean when there is a +∆G?
Definition
An endergonic reaction has occurred and it absorbs free energy from it's surroundings and is non spontaneous.
Term
Reactions in a closed system eventually reach what?
Definition
Equilibrium
Term
Why do cells maintain a constant state of disequilibrium? 
Definition
Because they are an open system.
Term
How does ATP power cellular work?
Definition
By coupling exergonic reactions to endergonic reactions as a way to manage their energy resources to do work.
Term
What are the three main kinds of work? Give examples.
Definition

Mechanical - The beating of cilia

Transport - The pumping of substances across membranes (K-Na Pump)

Chemical - Driving endergonic reactions such as the synthesis of polymers from monomers.

Term
What does ATP stand for? ADP? AMP?
Definition
Adenosine Triphophate, Adenosine Diphosphate, and Adenosine Monophosphate.
Term
What is the cell's energy shuttle and provides energy for cellular functions?
Definition
ATP.
Term
How is energy released from ATP?
Definition
When the terminal phosphate is broken. It will release 7.3 kcal of energyl/mole of ATP with a -∆G
Term
How can reactions be made favorable for a cell?
Definition
When ATP hydrolysis is coupled to other reactions
Term
How does ATP drive endergonic reactions?
Definition
Through phosphorylation, transferring a phosphate to other molecules creating a more reactive than the original unphosphorylated molecule.
Term
The hydrolysis of ATP powers how many types of cellular work?
Definition
Three.
Term
How can ATP be renewed? 
Definition
By the phosphorylation of ADP through various catabolic pathways that drive regeneration of ATP from ADP phosphate.
Term
Enzymes speed up metabolic reactions to do what?
Definition
To make them biologically relevant by lowering energy barriers
Term
What is a catalyst?
Definition
A chemical agent that speeds up a reaction without being consumed by the reaction
Term
Every chemical reaction between molecules involves what? What helps this?
Definition
Bond breaking and bond forming. Enzymes.
Term
What does the enzyme sucrase do?
Definition
Catalyzes the breaking apart of the bond of sucrose and fructose.
Term
What is activation energy?
Definition
The amount of energy required to start a chemical reaction.
Term
What is the transition state?
Definition
The summit of the reaction where the molecules are in an unstable condition.
Term
What does activation energy need to get started? (EA)
Definition
It needs an "spark plug" to speed up the reaction. An enzyme can catalyze/speeds reaction by lowering the activation energy barrier but not the ∆G
Term
What is the reaction coordinate?
Definition
It's the energy profile for an exergonic reaction that releases energy into its surroundings.
Term
What is the substrate?
Definition
The reactant molecule that an enzyme reacts on.
Term
How does an enzyme bind to the substrate?
Definition
By it's active site which is the specific region on the enzyme where the substrate binds.
Term
What is an induced fit?
Definition
Where the substrate groups into the active site to a position that enhances or tightens their ability to catalyze the chemical reactions with their substrate.
Term
What is the active site?
Definition
The site that can lower the EA Barrier by orienting the substrates correctly straining the substrates bonds, providing a favorable microenvironment and covalently bonding to the substrate.
Term
What are an enzyme affected by?
Definition
Temperature and pH
Term
What are cofactors?
Definition
Non-protein enzyme helpers
Term
What are coenzymes?
Definition
Organic cofactors for enzymes
Term
What are competitive inhibitors do?
Definition
They bind to the active site of an enzyme, competing with the substrate
Term
What do noncompetitive inhibitors do?
Definition
They bind to another part of an enzyme, changing the function
Term
Metabolic pathways must be what?
Definition
Tightly regulated to control cellular metabolism.
Term
What is allosteric regulation?
Definition
A term used to describe any case in which a protein's function at one site is affected by binding of a regulatory molecule at another site.
Term
What is cooperativity?
Definition
A form of allosteric regulation that amplifies enzyme activity.
Term
What is feedback inhibition?
Definition
Where the end product of metabolic pathway feeds back upon itself and shuts down the pathways. It prevents a cell from wasting chemical energy.
Term
How does energy enter most ecosystems? How does it leave?
Definition
As light energy. It leaves as heat.
Term
What is stored in organic molecules that mitochondria and eukaryotes use as fuel for cellular respiration?
Definition
Chemical Energy
Term
How to catabolic pathways yield energy?
Definition
By oxidizing and breaking down organic molecules via an exergonic process.
Term
Name a catabolic process. (Hint: Through a partial degredation of sugars that occurs in the absence of oxygen.)
Definition
Fermentation
Term
What is the most prevalent and efficient catabolic pathways? What does it consume? What does it yield?
Definition
Catabolic Respiration; Oxygen and organic molecules; ATP
Term
What must cells generate in order to keep working?
Definition
ATP
Term
Catabolic pathways yield energy based on their ability to cause what?
Definition
A transfer of electrons.
Term
What happens when a substance loses electrons?
Definition
It is oxidized.
Term
What is reduction?
Definition
The process of a substance gaining electrons.
Term
During cell respiration, what is oxidized? What is reduced?
Definition
Glucose is oxidized and Oxygen is reduced.
Term
What is NAD+? What role does it play in cellular respiration?
Definition
NAD+ is a coenzyme. In cell respiration glucose is oxidized. Instead of being transferred to oxygen they are passed off to NAD+
Term
What is NADH? What does it do?
Definition
The reduced form of NAD+. It passes electrons to the top of the electron transport chain.
Term
What happens if electron transfer is not stepwise?
Definition
A large release of energy occurs.
Term
Where is the electron transport chain located?
Definition
In the mitochondria. 
Term
During cellular respiration, what path do electrons follow?
Definition
A downhill root
Term
What are the stages of cellular respiration?
Definition
Glycolysis, Citric Acid Cycle, and Oxidative Phosphorylation.
Term
What is glycolysis and where does it occur?
Definition
It occurs in the cytoplasm and it breaks down glucose into two molecules of pyruvate.
Term
What is the citric acid cycle? Where does it occur?
Definition
It occurs in the mitochondrial matrix and utilizes pyruvate and completes the breakdown of glucose.
Term
What is oxidative phosphorylation and where does it occur?
Definition
It occurs on the inner mitochondrial membrane and drives the synthesis of ATP by the transfer of electrons from NADH in electron transport chain.
Term
How do glycolysis and the citric acid cycle generate ATP?
Definition
By substrate level phophorylation
Term
What are the two major phases of glycolysis?
Definition
The energy investment phase the energy payoff phase.
Term
What must happen before the citric acid cycle can being?
Definition
Pyruvate must first be transported and converted to acetyl CoA which links the cycle to glycolysis.
Term
What does the citric acid cycle utilize?
Definition
Acetyl CoA, NAD, FAD, ADP
Term
What does the citric acid generate?
Definition
FADH, 3 NADH, ATP and 2CO2
Term
What do NADH and FADH account for?
Definition
Most of the energy extracted from food.
Term
What powers ATP synthesis?
Definition
NADH and FADH's donation of electrons to the electron transport chain.
Term
What is the enzyme that synthesizes ATP? What is another name for it?
Definition
ATP Synthase. Jesus Enzyme.
Term
What creates a proton gradient?
Definition
Electrons moving through the electron transport chain, it pumps H+ from the mitochondrial matrix to the intermembrane space, creating the gradient.
Term
What does the proton gradient do?
Definition
It stores energy and drives chemiosmosis.
Term
What is chemiosmosis?
Definition
It's an energy coupling mechanism that uses energy in the form of a proton gradient across a membrane to drive cellular work and formation of ATP
Term
About how much glucose energy is transferred to ATP during cellular respiration? How much ATP does it make?
Definition
About 40% of the energy from glucose. Appox. 38 ATP.
Term
How much glucose would generate 34 ATP by oxidative phosphorylation?
Definition
About 1 molecule of glucose.
Term
How many molecules of glucose yield 6CO2 and 4ATP during glycolysis and the citric acid cycle?
Definition
One molecule of glucose.
Term
How much ATP is generated from each NADH by glycolysis and the citric acid cycle? 
Definition
About 3 ATP
Term
What allows some cells to produce ATP without oxygen?
Definition
Fermintation
Term
What can produce ATP with or without oxygen in either anaerobic or aerobic conditions when it is coupled with fermentation?
Definition
Glycolysis.
Term
Name two types of fermentation.
Definition
Lactic Acid Fermentation and Alcohol Fermentation. 
Term
Cellular respiration is controlled by what?
Definition
Allosteric Enzymes.
Term
What's is photosynthesis? What part of the plants participate in this?
Definition
The process that converts solar energy into chemical energy and helps nourish the biosphere. The chloroplasts.
Term
What are autotrophs?
Definition
They are the self feeders that produce organic molecules.
Term
Where are chloroplasts located?
Definition
Inside the mesophyll tissues in the interior of the leaf.
Term
What the the pores on the leave that O2 and CO2 leave and enter?
Definition
Stomata.
Term
What are the two membranes in the chloroplasts? What is the aqueous space surrounding them?
Definition
The thylakoids and grana. The stroma is the aqueous space.
Term
What is the reverse of photosynthesis?
Definition
Cellular respiration
Term
What are the two processes of photosynthesis? What are their functions?
Definition

Light reactions - occur in the grana, split water, release O2, produce ATP, and form NADPH.

Calvin Cycle - Occurs in the stroma, forms sugar from CO2, using ATP for energy and NADPH for reducing power.

Term
What is chlorophyll a? chlorophyll b? What are their differences?
Definition
The main photosynthetic pigment. an accessory pigment. They absorb different wavelengths of light and pass the energy to chlorophyll a.
Term
Light is a form of what kind of energy?
Definition
Electromagnetic Energy
Term
What happens when a pigment absorbs light?
Definition
Its electrons go from a grounded state to an excited state that releases heat energy and sometimes fluorescence.
Term
Light reactions convert solar energy to what?
Definition
ATP and NADPH
Term
Where does photosynthesis take place?
Definition
In the thylakoid membrane.
Term
What does the Calvin Cycle use to convert CO2 to sugar?
Definition
ATP and NADPH
Term
What distinguishes living things from non living things?
Definition
Reproduction
Term
What is reproduction based on?
Definition
Cell division
Term
How do unicellular organisms reproduce?
Definition
Through cell division
Term
Why do Multicellular organisms depend on cell division?
Definition
To develop fertilized cells or eggs, to grow cells to develop tissue, and to repair and renew cells that die from normal wear and tear.
Term
What is the cell cycle?
Definition
The life of a cell from its origin to its death.
Term
What does cell division require?
Definition
Identical genetic material distributed to two daughter cells
Term
Within a cell, what is it's genetic information called? What do they range from?
Definition
Genome. They range from single DNA molecules to several DNA molecules.
Term
How many somatic cells do humans have?
Definition
46
Term
How many sets of chromosomes are in gametes? In somatic cells?
Definition
1; 2
Term
What is the narrow section that connects chromatids called?
Definition
Centromere
Term
What is the division of the nucleus called?
Definition
Cytokinesis or Karyokinesis
Term
How many stages of cell division are there? What are they?
Definition
There are 5: Prophase, Prometaphase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase
Term
What can is the difference between regular cells and cancer cells?
Definition
Cancer cells don't stop growing/dividing, they don't need to be anchored, they metastasize, they don't exhibit density dependence
Term
What is variation in genetics?
Definition
Where offspring look slightly different from their parent.
Term
What is genetics?
Definition
The study of heredity and hereditary variation
Term
What is heredity?
Definition
the transmission of genes on chromosomes and their traits from one generation to the next
Term
What are genes? What are they made up of?
Definition
They're the units of heredity and are composed of DNA
Term
T/F. Each gene does not have a specific locus (location)
Definition
False
Term
In sexual reproduction, where do we inherit our chromosomes from?
Definition
One set chromosomes are from our mother and one from our father.
Term
What is produced in asexual reproduction?
Definition
An identical copy, or clone, is produced.
Term
What is a diploid cell? A haploid cell? What is their letter used to annotate them?
Definition
A diploid cell has two sets of each of its chromosomes and a haploid has only half. They are annotated by 2n and n, respectively.
Term
What happens in a cell with DNA synthesis?
Definition
The chromosomes duplicated and two identical sister chromatids are produced.
Term
What kind of cell has 46 chromosomes? How many sets are there?
Definition
A human somatic cell. There are two sets.
Term
What is a karyotype?
Definition
A visual representation of the chromosomes in a cell that can be used to determine their homology or similarity.
Term
What happens during fertilization of gametes in humans?
Definition
A diploid zygote is formed which will develop into an adult organism.
Term
When does meiosis occur in animals? Are they the only haploid cells?
Definition
It occurs during gamete formation and yes, they are the only haploid cells.
Term
T/F. Plants and some algae exhibit an alternation of generations where the life cycle includes both diploid and haploid multicellular stages.
Definition
Well, that would be true, as a matter of fact.
Term
In most fungi and some protists, meiosis produces what? What do these give rise to? What do they do?
Definition
Haploid cells, which changes into haploid multicellular organisms, which carries out mitosis producing cells that will become gametes
Term
What is the difference between meiosis and mitosis?
Definition
Meiosis resembles mitosis, but reduces the number of chromosomes sets diploid to haploid.
Term
What does Meiosis 1 do? Meiosis 2?
Definition
M1 separates the chromosomes and makes them haploid. M2 separates the sister chromatids and makes 4 daughters cells with 1/2 the chromosomes as the parent cell.
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