Term
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Definition
•all our body processes directly or indirectly require ATP
–ATP synthesis requires oxygen and produces carbon dioxide
–drives the need to breathe to take in oxygen, and eliminate carbon dioxide |
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Term
| respiratory and cardiovascular systems |
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Definition
-work together to deliver oxygen to the tissues and remove carbon dioxide
–considered jointly as cardiopulmonary system |
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Term
| respiratory system and the urinary system |
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Definition
| -collaborate to regulate the body's acid base balance |
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Term
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Definition
1. ventilation of the lungs (breathing)
2. the exchange of gases between the air and blood, and between blood and the tissue fluid
3. the use of oxygen in cellular metabolism |
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Term
| Functions of Respiratory System |
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Definition
| •affects pH of body fluids by eliminating CO2 •affects blood pressure by synthesis of vasoconstrictor, angiotensin II |
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Term
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Definition
–warms, cleanses, and humidifies inhaled air
–detects odors in the airstream
–serves as a resonating chamber that amplifies the voice |
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Term
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Definition
-cartilaginous chamber about 4 cm (1.5 in.)
-primary function is to keep food and drink out of the airway
–has evolved to additional role– phonation |
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Term
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Definition
| flap of tissue that guards the superior opening of the larynx |
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Term
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Definition
–a rigid tube about 12 cm (4.5 in.) long and 2.5 cm (1 in.) in diameter
–supported by 16 to 20 C-shaped rings of hyaline cartilage
–reinforces the trachea and keeps it from collapsing when you inhale
-inner lining is covered in ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium |
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Term
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Definition
–to make a temporary opening in the trachea inferior to the larynx and insert a tube to allow airflow
–prevents asphyxiation due to upper airway obstruction
–inhaled air bypasses the nasal cavity and is hot humidified
–if left for long will dry out the mucous membranes of the respiratory tract
–become encrusted and interfere with clearance of mucus from tract
–promoting infection |
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Term
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Definition
–lack cartilage
–1 mm or less in diameter
–pulmonary lobule |
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Term
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Definition
| portion of lung ventilated by one bronchiole |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| grape-like clusters of alveoli arrayed around a central space called the atrium |
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Term
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Definition
| 150 million alveoli in each lung, providing about 70 m2 of surface for gas exchange |
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Term
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Definition
| –serous membrane that covers lungs |
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Term
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Definition
–potential space between pleurae
–normally no room between the membranes, but contains a film of slippery pleural fluid |
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Term
| functions of pleurae and pleural fluid |
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Definition
–reduce friction
–create pressure gradient
•lower pressure than atmospheric pressure and assists lung inflation
–compartmentalization
•prevents spread of infection from one organ in the mediastinum to others |
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Term
| breathing (pulmonary ventilation) |
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Definition
| consists of a repetitive cycle one cycle of inspiration (inhaling) and expiration (exhaling) |
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Term
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Definition
| one complete inspiration and expiration |
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Term
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Definition
| while at rest, effortless, and automatic |
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Term
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Definition
| deep rapid breathing, such as during exercise |
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Term
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Definition
–prime mover of respiration
–contraction flattens diaphragm and enlarging thoracic cavity and pulling air into lungs
–relaxation allows diaphragm to bulge upward again, compressing the lungs and expelling air
–accounts for two-thirds of airflow |
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Term
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Definition
–consists of taking a deep breath, holding it by closing the glottis, and then contracting the abdominal muscles to raise abdominal pressure and pushing organ contents out
–childbirth, urination, defecation, vomiting |
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Term
| Neural Control of Breathing |
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Definition
•no autorhythmic pacemaker cells for respiration, as in the heart
•exact mechanism for setting the rhythm of respiration remains unknown
•breathing depends on repetitive stimuli of skeletal muscles from brain
•neurons in medulla oblongata and pons control unconscious breathing |
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Term
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Definition
–fibers of phrenic nerve supply diaphragm
–intercostal nerves supply intercostal muscles |
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Term
| Brainstem Respiratory Centers |
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Definition
| •automatic, unconscious cycle of breathing is controlled by three pairs of respiratory centers in the reticular formation of the medulla oblongata and the pons |
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Term
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Definition
| –anxiety triggered state in which breathing is so rapid that it expels CO2 from the body faster than it is produced. As blood CO2 levels drop, the pH rises causing the cerebral arteries to constrict reducing cerebral perfusion which may cause dizziness or fainting –can be brought under control by having the person rebreathe the expired CO2 from a paper bag |
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Term
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Definition
| –brainstem neurons that respond to changes in pH of cerebrospinal fluid –pH of cerebrospinal fluid reflects the CO2 level in the blood –by regulating respiration to maintain stable pH, respiratory center also ensures stable CO2 level in the blood |
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Term
| peripheral chemoreceptors |
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Definition
| –located in the carotid and aortic bodies of the large arteries above the heart –respond to the O2 and CO2 content and the pH of blood |
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Term
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Definition
–found in the smooth muscles of bronchi and bronchioles, and in the visceral pleura
–respond to inflation of the lungs
–inflation (Hering-Breuer) reflex |
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Term
| inflation (Hering-Breuer) reflex |
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Definition
–triggered by excessive inflation
-protective reflex that inhibits inspiratory neurons stopping inspiration |
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Term
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Definition
–nerve endings amid the epithelial cells of the airway
–respond to smoke, dust, pollen, chemical fumes, cold air, and excess mucus
–trigger protective reflexes such as bronchoconstriction, shallower breathing, breath-holding (apnea), or coughing |
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Term
| Voluntary Control of Breathing |
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Definition
-voluntary control over breathing originates in the motor cortex of frontal lobe of cerebrum
–sends impulses down corticospinal tracts to respiratory neurons in spinal cord, bypassing brainstem |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| the slight vacuum that exists between the two pleural layers |
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Term
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Definition
–the pressure in the alveoli drops -3 mm Hg
-pressure gradient from 760 mm Hg atmosphere to 757 mm Hg in alveoli allows air to flow into the lungs |
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Term
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Definition
| the dimensions of the thoracic cage increase only a few millimeters in each direction |
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Term
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Definition
–passive process achieved mainly by the elastic recoil of the thoracic cage
–recoil compresses the lungs
–volume of thoracic cavity decreases |
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Term
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Definition
–accessory muscles raise intrapulmonary pressure as high as +30 mm Hg
–massive amounts of air moves out of the lungs |
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Term
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Definition
-presence of air in pleural cavity
–thoracic wall is punctured
–inspiration sucks air through the wound into the pleural cavity
–potential space becomes an air filled cavity
–loss of negative intrapleural pressure allows lungs to recoil and collapse |
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Term
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Definition
-collapse of part or all of a lung
–can also result from an airway obstruction |
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Term
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Definition
-pressure is one determinant of airflow
-resistance is the other determinant of airflow
–the greater the resistance the slower the flow |
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Term
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Definition
| reduces surface tension of water |
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Term
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Definition
•thin film of water needed for gas exchange
–creates surface tension that acts to collapse alveoli and distal bronchioles
•pulmonary surfactant produced by the great alveolar cells
–decreases surface tension by disrupting the hydrogen bonding in water |
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Term
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Definition
•only air that enters the alveoli is available for gas exchange
•not all inhaled air gets there
•about 150 mL fills the conducting division of the airway
•anatomic dead space
•physiologic (total) dead space
•residual volume |
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Term
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Definition
–conducting division of airway where there is no gas exchange
–can be altered somewhat by sympathetic and parasympathetic stimulation |
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Term
| physiologic (total) dead space |
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Definition
| –sum of anatomic dead space and any pathological alveolar dead space |
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Term
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Definition
| –1300 mL that cannot be exhaled with max. effort |
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Term
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Definition
| a device that recaptures expired breath and records such variables such as rate and depth of breathing, speed of expiration, and rate of oxygen consumption |
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Term
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Definition
| volume of air inhaled and exhaled in one cycle during quiet breathing (500 mL) |
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Term
| inspiratory reserve volume |
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Definition
| air in excess of tidal volume that can be inhaled with maximum effort (3000 mL) |
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Term
| expiratory reserve volume |
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Definition
| air in excess of tidal volume that can be exhaled with maximum effort (1200 mL) |
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Term
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Definition
| air remaining in lungs after maximum expiration (1300 mL) |
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Term
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Definition
-total amount of air that can be inhaled and then exhaled with maximum effort
-important measure of pulmonary health |
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Term
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Definition
| -maximum amount of air that can be inhaled after a normal tidal expiration |
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Term
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Definition
–the measurement of pulmonary function
–aid in diagnosis and assessment of restrictive and obstructive lung disorders |
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Term
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Definition
–those that reduce pulmonary compliance
–limit the amount to which the lungs can be inflated
–any disease that produces pulmonary fibrosis
–black-lung, tuberculosis |
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Term
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Definition
–relaxed quiet breathing
–characterized by tidal volume 500 mL and the respiratory rate of 12–15 bpm |
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Term
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Definition
| temporary cessation of breathing |
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Term
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Definition
| labored, gasping breathing; shortness of breath |
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Term
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Definition
| increased rate and depth of breathing in response to exercise, pain, or other conditions |
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Term
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Definition
| increased pulmonary ventilation in excess of metabolic demand |
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Term
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Definition
| reduced pulmonary ventilation |
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Term
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Definition
| permanent cessation of breathing |
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Term
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Definition
| –the back-and-forth traffic of O2 and CO2 across the respiratory membrane –air in the alveolus is in contact with a film of water covering the alveolar epithelium –for oxygen to get into the blood it must dissolve in this water –pass through the respiratory membrane separating the air from the bloodstream –for carbon dioxide to leave the blood it must pass the other way –diffuse out of the water film into the alveolar air -gases diffuse down their own concentration gradient until the partial pressure of each gas in the air is equal to its partial pressure in water |
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Term
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Definition
| –CO2 20 times as soluble as O2 –O2 is twice as soluble as N2 |
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Term
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Definition
| the process of carrying gases from the alveoli to the systemic tissues and vise versa |
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Term
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Definition
–98.5% bound to hemoglobin
–1.5% dissolved in plasma |
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Term
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Definition
–70% as bicarbonate ion
–23% bound to hemoglobin
–7% dissolved in plasma |
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Term
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Definition
| –molecule specialized in oxygen transport -each with a heme group which binds one O2 to the ferrous ion (Fe2+) |
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Term
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Definition
| -competes for the O2 binding sites on the hemoglobin molecule -colorless, odorless gas in cigarette smoke, engine exhaust, fumes from furnaces and space heaters |
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Term
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Definition
–CO binds to ferrous ion of hemoglobin
–binds 210 times as tightly as oxygen
–ties up hemoglobin for a long time |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
-pulmonary ventilation is adjusted to maintain the pH of the brain
–central chemoreceptors in the medulla oblongata produce about 75% of the change in respiration induced by pH shift |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| blood pH higher than 7.45 |
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Term
| Carbon Dioxide Direct Effects |
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Definition
| Increases CO2 at beginning of exercise may directly stimulate peripheral chemoreceptors and trigger increase of ventilation more quickly than central chemoreceptors |
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Term
| causes of increased respiration during exercise |
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Definition
1. when the brain sends motor commands to the muscles
•it also sends this information to the respiratory centers
•they increase pulmonary ventilation in anticipation of the needs of the exercising muscles
2. exercise stimulates proprioceptors of the muscles and joints
•they transmit excitatory signals to the brainstem respiratory centers
•increase breathing because they are informed that the muscles have been told to move or are actually moving
•increase in pulmonary ventilation keeps blood gas values at their normal levels in spite of the elevated O2 consumption and CO2 generation by the muscles |
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Term
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Definition
–a deficiency of oxygen in a tissue or the inability to use oxygen
–a consequence of respiratory diseases |
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Term
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Definition
–inadequate circulation of blood
–congestive heart failure |
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Term
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Definition
| –due to anemia resulting from the inability of the blood to carry adequate oxygen |
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Term
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Definition
| –metabolic poisons such as cyanide prevent the tissues from using oxygen delivered to them |
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Term
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Definition
–blueness of the skin
–sign of hypoxia |
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Term
| Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) |
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Definition
| refers to any disorder in which there is a long-term obstruction of airflow and a substantial reduction in pulmonary ventilation; major ones are chronic bronchitis and emphysema |
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Term
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Definition
–alveolar walls break down
•lung has larger but fewer alveoli
•much less respiratory membrane for gas exchange
–lungs fibrotic and less elastic
•healthy lungs are like a sponge; in emphysema, lungs are more like a rigid balloon
–air passages collapse
•obstructs outflow of air
•air trapped in lungs
–weaken thoracic muscles
•spend three to four times the amount of energy just to breathe |
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Term
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Definition
-accounts for more deaths than any other form of cancer
–most important cause is smoking (15 carcinogens) |
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Term
| squamous-cell carcinoma (most common) |
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Definition
–begins with transformation of bronchial epithelium into stratified squamous from ciliated pseudostratified epithelium
–dividing cells invade bronchial wall, cause bleeding lesions
–dense swirls of keratin replace functional respiratory tissue |
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Term
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Definition
| –originates in mucous glands of lamina propria |
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Term
| small-cell (oat cell) carcinoma |
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Definition
–least common, most dangerous
–named for clusters of cells that resemble oat grains
–originates in primary bronchi, invades mediastinum, metastasizes quickly to other organs |
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Term
| Progression of Lung Cancer |
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Definition
•90% originate in primary bronchi
•often first sign is coughing up blood
•metastasis is rapid; usually occurs by time of diagnosis
–common sites: pericardium, heart, bones, liver, lymph nodes and brain
•prognosis poor after diagnosis
–only 7% of patients survive 5 years |
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