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Bio 182 Exam 1
Bio 182 Exam 1
79
Biology
Undergraduate 1
09/14/2011

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Term
Scientific Creationism
Definition
-Called: "Intelligent Design" (too complicated, thus product of higher intelligence)
-Propose earth is 6,000-10,000 years old
-propose: earth created with apparent age
-unfalsifiable
Term
Uniformitarianism
Definition
Processes that we observe today have always been occurring and can account for current geological formations
Example: earthquakes over time creating a mountain
Term
Endemic (Galapagos island animals)
Definition
Belonging exclusively or confined to a particular place
Term
Finch Beak Variation (Galapagos Islands)
Definition
-Finches similar, but beaks varied based on their target food source(example thicker beak for breaking seeds)
Term
Artificial Selection
Definition
Traits selected by breeder to produce favorable offspring
Examples: cattle, cats, dogs, mustard plant
Term
5 Steps of Natural Selection
Definition
1. Overpopulation
2. Variation
3. Struggle for existence
4. Organisms with best adaptations survive and reproduce
5. Adaptations are inherited by offspring
Term
Overpopulation(N.S. Step 1)
Definition
More offspring are produced than can possibly survive
Term
Variation(N.S. Step 2)
Definition
-All organisms vary in size, shape, and behavior
-Extensive variation = some will have special productive traits called "adaptations"
-Adaptations allow them to deal with environments better than those without
Term
Struggle for Existence(N.S. Step 3)
Definition
-Competition, predation, and environmental extremes put stress on populations to survive
- competition for resources
Term
Organisms with the best adaptations survive and reproduce(N.S. Step 4)
Definition
-those with adaptations have an advantage and more likely to survive and reproduce
-"survival of the fittest"
-Fitness: tendency to leave more offspring that reproduce than competitors
Term
Adaptations are inherited by offspring(N.S. Step 5)
Definition
-Particulate inheritance --> genes
-view was- blending inheritance- Example beak lengths (5 inch mates with 3 inch = 4 inch)
Term
Fossils(Why can they be problematic?)
Definition
-Soft bodied forms don't tend to show
-fossilization is a rare occurrence
-many gaps
-volcanic forces can destroy them
Term
Fossils(How do they support Macro-Evolution)
Definition
-sequence of fossils (older rocks/fossils = more foreign in appearance, while newer rocks yield recent species)
-order fish then amphibians then reptiles etc
-can be falsified, but is not
Term
Precambrian Explosion (make a point against creationism)
Definition
-Although it may appear as though life appeared in abundance from nothing, but this is most likely due to soft bodied forms predating the formation of exo/endo skeletons.
Term
Homologous Structure (define, then give example)
Definition
-Structures that have the same evolutionary origin, but not necessarily the same function
Example: Forearm bones in cats, humans, whales, bats are very similar, but have drastically different functions
Term
Divergent Evolution (define + example)
Definition
-Homologous structures
-Closely related forms look different due to environmental factors
Example: Wooly Mammoth vs Elephant
Term
Analogous Structure (Define + example)
Definition
-Structures that have different evolutionary origins, but same function
Example: bird, pterodactyl, insects, bats solving flight in different ways
Term
Convergent Evolution (define + example)
Definition
-Analogous Structures
-Distantly related forms look similar because of similar selection pressure (environment)
Example: Rabbit vs mara, fish vs shark vs reptile(fish-like dinosaurs)
Term
4 Phases of the development of Evolutionary Theory
Definition
1. I.D. mechanism- Darwins N.S.
2. NeoDarwinism- population genetics, testing, genetics, meiosis
3. Molecular Approach- computers, DNA sequencing
4. Evo-Devo (embryo and evolution)- found Hox genes which governs appearance which helps explain major changes in evolution
Term
Polymorphism (define + example)
Definition
-two or more forms of discrete character in a population
-could be considered raw materials for natural selection/evolution
Examples: freckles vs non, hair, blood groups
Term
Neo-Darwinism
Definition
-application of population genetics(H.W.E.) to Natural Selection
Term
Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium
Definition
-gene frequencies do not change generation to generation unless outside forces act to change them
-is the "control group" of evolution
-the larger the group, the more "normalized" the gene frequencies are
-the smaller the group, the more "chance" can change gene frequencies
-harmful/recessive alleles exist through heterozygous mating
-Outside forces: mutations, migration, mating selective mating, selection, chance, population size
Other assumptions: diploid, sexual, no generation overlap
Term
Population Genetics Equation + variables
Definition
p^2 + 2pq + q^2 = 1
p + q = 1
p = dominant allele
q = recessive allele
N = population size
gene pool = number of alleles
Term
Gene Flow
Definition
-movement of genes between populations or within a population
-high flow = genetically similar
- little flow = genetically less similar
-Isolation = key to new specie
Term
Genetic Drift
Definition
allele frequency tends to "drift" towards being lost or fixed in a population by chance alone
-Component of the "Founder Effect"
Term
Sampling Error
Definition
Successive samples taken from a mixed population will differ by chance alone

-this is important when thinking of new groups/samples being isolated
-Component of the "Founder Effect"
Term
Founder Effect
Definition
-A new population is formed (or founded) by an unrepresented genetic sample from the mother population
-two processes: Sampling error, Genetic Drift
-Only Sampling error is absolutely necessary
-This process commonly wouldn't produce an adapted organism
Term
Bottleneck Effect
Definition
- another version of the founder effect
- a natural disaster or environment destruction leaves a small population with random alleles which typically do not represent the mother/original population
-example of this would be cheetahs inbreeding due to environmental destruction and population reduction
Term
Negative Effect of Inbreeding
Definition
-increases homozygous and decreases heterozygous which decreases variation
-inbreeding may be favored IF: environment is VERY stable and predictable
Term
Polygenic (def. + example)
Definition
-many genes control the expression of a single trait
Example: body size, weight
Term
Pleiotropic (def. + example)
Definition
-a single gene affects the expression of many traits
Example: sickle-cell anemia affects RBC's which has numerous effects
Term
HWE Assumption of Selection
Definition
- there are many potential selection agents, but organisms cannot perfectly adapt to every one
-NS favors the best combination of genes to deal with all the selecting agents
Term
(Directional) Selection
Definition
-removes or favors individuals near the mean of a phenotype (based on the bell shaped curve)
-Meaning~ the bell graph shifts away from the mean
Term
(Stabilizing) Selection
Definition
-removes extreme phenotypes or favors individuals near mean of population(based on the bell shaped curve)
-meaning~ bell graph will become narrow and the population will be pushed to the mean
Term
(Disruptive) Selection
Definition
- selects against individuals near the mean (based on the bell shaped curve)
-the two extremes are favored, but the mean/mixed are not, resulting in two peaks with a decline in the center where the previous mean was located
Term
Sexual Selection
Definition
-selective pressures that males and females exert on each other to acquire mates
Term
Kin Selection
Definition
-selection for activities that lower an individuals personal reproduction, but increase the fitness of a relative
-seen in RELATIVES due to shared genes
- considered inclusive fitness
-Example: meercats,bees
Term
Group Selection
Definition
-Selection where individuals sacrifice their own personal fitness for the benefit of the group to which they belong
-rare in nature because if "selfish mutants" appear they will take full advantage and overwhelm the population with their flourishing offspring
Term
Micro-evolution
Definition
-changes within a species; not the creation of a new species
Examples: resistant bacteria to antibiotics, insects resistant to pesticides, batesian mimicry
Term
(Crypsis or Cryptic Coloration) Mimicry
Definition
- matches substrate or blends into background to escape detection
Term
Warning (aposematic) Coloration
Definition
-brightly colored and in high contrast to background; easily visible to predators that hunt by vision; color is associated with poor taste,sting,bite,etc
Term
Mimicry
Definition
- when one organism that is palatable (or does not sting , bite, etc) called the "mimic" looks like another organism that is unpalatable, which is called the "model", in order to fool some preditor(the "dupe")
Term
Batesian Mimicry
Definition
-a palatable species evolves the warning coloration of an unpalatable species in order to escape predation
Example: Monarch(model) and Viceroy(mimic)
Term
Batesian Mimicry Disadvantages (to model)
Definition
-if mimic is attacked first, model is likely to receive an attack
-if mimic also somewhat have an unpalatable quality, it will reduce the chance of a second encounter/attack
Term
Exaptation
Definition
-structures that evolved in a different context from the one where they currently function -Example: light bones formed before flight (possibly useful for speed) -NS does not anticipate future needs of an organism
Term
Coevolution
Definition
-when two or more species evolve in concert with each other "the arms race in nature" - cheetahs having speed and agility - antelope having widely dispersed vision and stamina -- both traits are competing
Term
Sexual Selection (Male/female strategy)
Definition
Female:
-large energy invested, thus is choosy with male selection
-choose superior genes (handicap principle- if can survive with handicaps, he must have favorable genes)
Males:
-low energy, less choosy
-defend resources attractive to mates
-drive off/ lower other males reproductive success
-only invest additional E in offspring when absolutely necessary (survivability of offspring with 1 parent)
-Males can increase E investment by : Parental Care
Term
Altruistic Behavior
Definition
-when an individual lowers their own personal fitness to help, increase the fitness of, a non-relative
Term
Reciprocal Altruism
Definition
-when an individual lowers their own personal fitness to help, increase the fitness of, a non-relative **with the expectation of a returned service
-Cost must not be too large, but the benefit great
-must be able to remember
-a certain brain size seems to be required
Term
MacroEvolution
Definition
formation of a new species
Term
Biological Species
Definition
-are entities of nature that are recognized because they could breed with each other, but not with a different species
-must be sexual and applies to vertebrates
Term
Anatomical Species
Definition
Species classified based on anatomical differences
Term
Problems with "Species" Concept
Definition
-Asexual forms
-Sexual dimorphism
-Stage of development -larva vs adult
-geographic variation (sub-species)
-polymorphism
-Ecotypes
Term
Allopatric Model of Speciation (4 phases)
Definition
1. local selection favors divergence (formation of a new species
- however due to Gene Flow this counteracts local selection
2. Barrier arises
-Barrier- anything preventing gene flow
3. Time
-longer the isolation the more "novel mutations" accumulate in each population
-local selection continues to operate
4. Barrier is removed
-if subspecies cannot interbreed, then speciation has occurred
- newly formed species called Sister Species
-if can breed, speciation has not occurred.
Term
Allopatric Model of Speciation-Peripheral Isolates Version
Definition
-still based on large wide-ranging population
-difference - a very small portion of mother population becomes isolated
-this mechanism can take advantage of local selection and chance events
-founder/bottleneck effect
Term
Gradualism
Definition
-small changes occur gradually over time
-fossils of a particular group should not change abruptly from old to young strata
Term
Punctuated Equilibrium
Definition
-Peripheral isolates may allow rapid speciation
-since speciation occurred so quickly, one is unlikely to find transitional stages; should be abrupt jumps in fossil record
Term
Barriers / Isolating Mechanisms (Prezygotic)
Definition
-geographic -- mountains/barriers
-ecological --diff niche
-temporal(seasonal) --breed at diff times
-behavioral -- calls/courtship
-mechanical -- incompatible genitalia
-biochemical -- pH levels, WBC's, etc
Term
Barriers / Isolating Mechanisms (Postzygotic)
Definition
-operate after zygote is formed
-mismatched chromosome numbers
-hybrid infertility (sterility)
-hybrid inferiority --unlikely to survive
Term
Hybridization resulting in Speciation
Definition
-instead of hybrid inferiority, a more adaptive organism is created
-offspring receive best adaptations from both parents and are able to survive better than their parents in parental habitats
-called Hybrid Vigor
Term
Nondisjunction resulting in Speciation
Definition
-uneven distribution of chromosomes during meiosis
-usually prevents zygote from developing into an offspring, but rarely produces novel combinations of chromosomes
Term
Polyploid
Definition
-organisms that possess more than two sets of chromosomes
-normal = diploid; gametes = haploid
Term
Parthenogenesis
Definition
-Development of a viable offspring from an unfertilized egg
-adaptive in exploiting newly opened habitats
-found in many groups of plants and animals
Term
Sympatric Speciation
Definition
-defined as, speciation without geographic isolation
Causes:
-Hybrid Vigor (superior hybrid)
-Nondisjunction (uneven chromosome distribution)
-Ecological Shifts (food,hosts,micro-habitat)
-Sexual Selection (favoring specific traits in mates)
Term
Systematics
Definition
-Science dealing with the study of organic diversity
-broad in scope including taxonomy, evolution, ecology, behavior, etc
Term
Taxonomy
Definition
-Practice of classifying organic diversity
-the delimiting, ranking, and ordering of taxa
-Taxon - a group of real organisms at any rank in classification
-Category- an abstract term defining the relative rank of a taxon in a classification
Term
Taxonomy Main(common) Categories
Definition
-Domain
-Kingdom
-Phylum
-Class
-Order
-Family
-Genus
-Specie
Term
Rules for Binomial Naming (Carolus von Linnaeus)
Definition
-first word is genus
-first letter must be capitalized

-Second word would be the epithet
-all letters in the epithet would be lower case

both together form the species name
-both words had to be italicized or underlined
Term
Phylogeny
Definition
-evolutionary history of a group
Term
Phylogenetic
Definition
-a system of classification based on evolutionary relationships
Term
Natural classification
Definition
-a classification that reflects phylogeny
-all likes are found in this case, which is the ideal/perfect situation
Term
Artificial Classification
Definition
-classification not based on phylogeny
-will not reflect patterns of evolution
Example: Alphabetizing in a "dictionary" style
Term
Monophyletic
Definition
-a particular taxon has ancestor and all descendents present
-ideal and is what taxonomists want in natural classifications
Term
Paraphyletic
Definition
-a particular taxon has one ancestor, but does not include all descendants
-one member unknowingly may have been placed with another taxon
Term
Polyphyletic
Definition
-a particular taxon lacks the common ancestor that unites the two(or more) groups
Term
Cladistic School Classification
Definition
-based on only shared derived characters
-reflects blood-line descent
Term
Ancestral Character
Definition
-found in all members of a particular clade(branch)
Example: hair is common to all mammals and would not help us sort giraffes from rabbits
Term
Derived Character
Definition
-character unique to a particular clade
-hair is unique to mammals and separates them from all other vertebrates
Term
Name: 3 Domains
Definition
Bacteria
Archaea
Eukarya
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