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BIO 181 Exam 3
NCSU Engell
267
Biology
Undergraduate 1
04/10/2013

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Term
Mechanical breakdown of food
Definition
chewing
Term
Chemical breakdown of food
Definition
– HCl in the stomach
– enzymes
Term
Purpose of Digestion
Definition
reduce food particles to molecules that can be absorbed into the blood
Term
Incomplete digestive system
Definition
Saclike digestive cavity – food enters and wastes leave through a single opening
ex:– flatworms, jellyfish
Term
Complete digestive system
Definition
A tube with an opening at each end – one for taking in food and one for eliminating
ex:most invertebrates, all vertebrates
Term
Monogastrics or non-ruminants
Definition
One, simple, stomach (carnivores, omnivores)
Term
Ruminants
Definition
Four compartment stomach(herbivores)
Term
Ruminant Animals
Definition
• Capable of digesting material with high fiber concentration
• Use microbial fermentation – Cattle
– Sheep – Goats – Deer
Term
POPULATION
Definition
same species, same place, same time
Term
COMMUNITY
Definition
all populations in an area
Term
ECOSYSTEM
Definition
community and abiotic (nonliving) factors
Term
BIOSPHERE
Definition
entire realm in which organisms exist (planet Earth!)
Term
What are the Four Compartment's of the Stomach
Definition
– Rumen
– Reticulum
(R's have 85% of capacity)
– Omasum
– Abomasum
Term
Rumen
Definition
– Largest of the four parts (“room-in-it”)
– Filled with bacteria and other microbes
– Converts large amounts of roughage to amino acids
The average cow rumen can hold over 40 gallons!!
Term
species
Definition
group of interbreeding organisms that
produce fertile offspring and that do not ordinarily
breed with members of other groups
Term
Bacteria and Protozoa in Rumen
Definition
– moist, warm, constant supply of nutrients
– various populations of organisms depending on the kind and quality of the feed
– acidic environment of abomasum eventually kills the microorganisms
– provide amino acids and some energy to animal
Term
genetic barrier
Definition
exists between different
species
Term
Reticulum
Definition
(2 gallons in cow)
– Compartment where liquid goes
– Honeycomb in structure
– Interacts with rumen to mix contents
Term
Omasum
Definition
(4 gallons in cow)
– Grinds and squeezes, many folds
– Removes some liquid
Term
Density
Definition
# individuals/unit area
Term
Abomasum
Definition
(4 gallons in cow)
– “True” stomach
– Enzymes and acids
Term
Population Dispersion:
Definition
pattern of spacing within geographic boundaries of population
Term
How to Ruminants eat rapidly
Definition
– they regurgitate food (cud)
– chew it again and swallow
– exposes more surface area for microbial action
Term
Rumination
Definition
continuous regurgitation, chewing and swallowing
Term
Dispersion(3 types)
Definition
uniform, random, clumped(most common)
Term
Five Overall Tasks of a Complete Digestive System
Definition
• Mechanical processing and motility – physical manipulation that breaks up, mixes & propels food
•Secretion – Release of digestive enzymes & other substances from lining of tract and accessory organs
•Digestion – chemical breakdown of food into molecules small enough to be absorbed
•Absorption – Passage of digested nutrients & fluid across the tube wall and into body fluids
•Elimination – Expulsion of undigested, unabsorbed residues from the end of the gut
Term
Growth
Definition
depends on biotic potential: fastest reproductive rate possible
for a population under ideal conditions, differs from one species
to another (results in exponential growth)
Term
What are some associated organs
Definition
salivary glands, gall bladder, liver, pancreas
Term
The Human Digestive System Is
Definition
• A complete system with many specialized organs
• About 6.5-9 meters long if extended
• Lined with mucus-secreting epithelium
• Movement is one way, from mouth to anus
Term
conservation biology
Definition
restoration of disturbed populations
Term
Population Growth (r )
Definition
the change in the number of
individuals in the population (∆N) per unit time (∆t)
Term
∆N/∆t = the per capita growth rate, (r)
Definition
(births – deaths) + (immigrants – emigrants)
Term
Major Components of Human digestive system
Definition
• Mouth (oral cavity) • Pharynx (throat)
• Esophagus
• Gut
– Stomach
– Small intestine
– Large intestine
– Rectum
– Anus
Term
How long does it take for food to travel through the digestive system
Definition
24 hours
Term
Salivary glands
Definition
– Secrete saliva (with carbohydrate digesting enzymes, buffers & mucus to moisten food)
Term
Liver
Definition
– Secretes bile for emulsifying fat, also roles in fat, carbohydrate & protein metabolism
Term
Gallbladder
Definition
Stores & concentrates bile from liver
Term
3 tasks of the Pancreas
Definition
1) Secretes digestive enzymes that break down all major food molecules, 2)secretes buffers against HCL from stomach,
3)secretes insulin to control glucose metabolism
Term
If r is positive
If r is negative
If r is 0
Definition
the population is growing
the population is declining
then there is zero population growth (ZPG)
Term
salivary enzymes...
Definition
begin the digestion of starch
Term
What is food called after being chewed?
Definition
Bolus
Term
Biotic potential is seldom reached in natural populations, due
to
Definition
limiting factors
Term
Where is Saliva Produced
Definition
salivary glands at back of mouth and under tongue
Term
density-dependent
Definition
predation
sunlight
disease/parasites
competition
territoriality
Term
Saliva includes
Definition
– Amylase (enzyme) – start digestion of
carbohydrates
– Bicarbonate (buffer)
– Mucins (bind food into bolus)
– Water (99% of saliva)
Term
density-independent
Definition
food
weather
natural disasters
human activities
Term
pharynx
Definition
common chamber for food and air
Term
Epiglottis
Definition
closes off trachea; breathing temporarily ceases
Term
esophagus
Definition
food moves through,muscular tube, about 0.8in diameter
Term
peristalsis
Definition
Involuntary wavelike contractions that move food through esophageal sphincter into stomach
Term
carrying capacity (K)
Definition
maximum # individuals a particular environment can
support indefinitely (# can vary over time)
Term
Stomach
Definition
Dimensions vary; can be narrow tube when empty or expanded into a sac that can hold almost 0.5 gallon; accordion-like folds in muscle wall (rugae) allow expansion; sphincters at both ends control entry and exit of food
Term
"S-shaped curve"
Definition
logistic growth
Term
"J-shaped curve"
Definition
exponential growth
Term
Stomach Functions
Definition
a) Temporary storage of ingested food
b) Mixing of ingested food (mechanical digestion) c) Digestion of proteins using acids and enzymes
(chemical digestion)
d) Absorption of some substances (e.g., alcohol, aspirin)
e) Controlling passage of food into small intestine (stays in stomach ~4 hours)
Term
Epithelium (gastric juices)
Definition
-secretes HCl and enzyme pepsin from glands in gastric pits; HCl reduces pH to level suitable for activity of pepsin; pepsin begins chemical digestion of proteins
-secretes mucus, which coats inner lining of stomach and protects it from corrosive action of gastric juices
Term
Life-history strategies
Definition
based on a species’ reproductive traits
and the carrying capacity of their environment
Term
Cause of gastric ulcers
Definition
when mucus layer breaks down and no longer protects from acid
Term
r- strategists
Definition
-high growth rate
-large # offspring
-rapid maturation
-small body size
-unpredictable environments
-many asexually reproduce
-many only reproduce once in lifetime
Term
Small intestine components and general function
Definition
Duodenum, Jejenum, Ileum ~25 ft long **-most chemical digestion and nutrient absorption here
-Receives digested food called “chyme” from stomach -Receives secretions from liver, gallbladder, and pancreas
Term
Walls of Small Intestine
Definition
Projections into the intestinal lumen increase the surface area available for absorption
Term
K-strategists
Definition
-population near or at carrying capacity
-few offspring
-slow maturation
-often care for young
-larger in size
-stable environments
-most reproduce more than once
Term
Absorption in small intestine by:
Definition
Villi and microvilli
Surface area= size of tennis court
Term
Life Table
Definition
data on number of individuals
alive in each particular age class (cohort)
Term
Survivorship
Definition
the proportion of offspring
produced that survive on average to a
particular age
Term
Small intestine receives what from where?
Definition
-bicarbonate from pancreas to neutralize stomach acid
-enzymes from pancreas digest carbohydrates, fats, and proteins
-bile from liver (production) and gallbladder (storage) to break up fats
Term
Type I
Definition
High survivorship of young, live most of life expectancy
(large mammals, etc)… usually K-strategists
Term
Functions of the liver
Definition
Removes and destroys some toxins
(e.g., alcohol)
Serves as large reservoir of blood; phagocytes here constantly
remove cell debris, pathogens, damaged red blood cells Produces bile, which aids in digestion of fats
Term
Type II
Definition
Relatively constant death rate throughout life span
(rodents, large fish and birds, etc)
Term
Gallbladder
Definition
muscular sac that stores bile produced by liver; bile produced in liver may flow directly into small intestine through common hepatic duct (as during mealtimes), or may back up through cystic duct to be stored in gallbladder
Term
Type III:
Definition
Many young, most of which die
early in life (sea turtles, frogs,
trees, invertebrates, etc)…
usually r-strategists
Term
Human Population Growth (facts)
Definition
-Human population growth does not currently show density effects that typically characterize natural populations. • In natural populations, per capita population growth rate decreaseswith population size, whereas global human population growth rate has a positive relationship. • Human population growth rate has been growing more than exponentially. • Limited resources eventuallywill cause human population growth to slow, but global human carrying capacity is not known.
Term
Large intestine dimensions
Definition
about 5 ft long, 3x wider than small intestine
Term
Large intestine functions
Definition
holds and compacts undigested material; absorbs water and vitamins produced by resident intestinal bacteria.
Term
E. coli Bacteria in Large Intestine
Definition
• Break down remaining nutrients
• Synthesize vitamins (vitamin K)
Term
Three main regions of large intestine
Definition
Cecum, colon, rectum
Term
Cecum
Definition
expanded chamber, receives chyme from small
intestine (still used in most herbivores, many bacteria– in carnivores, reduced to appendix)
Term
Colon
Definition
longest portion; has characteristic series of muscular pouches; water is reabsorbed here; bacterial activity may produce hydrogen sulfide (produces odor of feces), flatus (gas) due to bacterial action on undigested plant polysaccharides
Term
Rectum
Definition
hamber at end of tract; usually empty, except when peristaltic contractions force feces into it from colon; triggers defecation reflex, excretion through the anus
Term
feces
Definition
indigestible waste and cellulose, dead cells, dead bacteria, etc.
Term
Diarrhea
Definition
Colon not effective in reabsorbing water (due to infection, etc.)
Term
Constipation
Definition
feces moves along too slowly, becomes too compacted (lack of exercise, lack of fiber)
Term
Bird Digestive Systems (All components and functions)
Definition
• Mouth or beak
– Can not chew food
• Esophagus
– Connects mouth to crop
• Crop
– Stores and softens food,
is a dilation of the esophagus
• Stomach
• Gizzard
– Crushes food
• Contains grit and gravel – Mixes food with
digestive juices
• Liver
• Small and Large Intestine
• Vent
– Removes solid and liquid waste
Term
Nutrition
Definition
1. Fuel for all activities
2. Raw materials for molecules etc.
3. Supply essential nutrients (animal cannot make itself)
Term
malnourished
Definition
lacking in one or more essential nutrients
malnourishment more common– even seen in obese individuals
Term
undernourished
Definition
lack of sufficient calories
Term
Poor nutrition in early life:
Definition
-body does not develop optimally
-growth is slower
-mental abilities may not be optimal
-immune system may not be strong
-life span may be shortened
Term
Doubling time
Definition
is
time needed for a
population to
double in size
Term
humans added/born every 60 seconds
Definition
~4
Term
Poor nutrition as an adult:
Definition
-less energy is available to provide for self and dependents
-person is less able to work and earn money
-person is more susceptible to illness
-life span may be shortened
Term
growth rate is higher in
Definition
developing countries (less industrialization
and prosperity)- many in Africa and Southeast Asia
Term
Carbohydrates:
Definition
• Body’s main energy source
• Foods high in complex carbohydrates are usually high in fiber; promote colon health
• Simple sugars lack fiber as well as minerals and vitamins of whole foods; intake should be minimized
Term
agrarian societies=
Definition
children an asset
Term
urbanized societies=
Definition
children are consumers
Term
Demographic transition=
Definition
movement from high birth and
death rates to low birth and death rates
Term
Age structure
Definition
proportion of individuals in each age-group
Term
Proteins:
Definition
those in animal meats and soy products are “complete” provide all 8 essential amino acids (body can’t build, must be eaten). Vegans and vegetarians must be careful to obtain all of these-
Term
Fats/ Lipids
Definition
• Most can be synthesized by the body
• Essential fatty acids must be obtained from food
• Fats should be about 30% of diet
• Excess saturated fats can raise cholesterol level and contribute to heart disease
Term
Ecological footprint
Definition
land and water used by a nation for
consumption and wastes of its population
Term
Vitamins-
Definition
13- organic nutrients, need to be in diet, used in metabolic reactions
Term
Minerals
Definition
inorganic nutrients required for many body functions
Term
RDA (recommended daily allowance)
Definition
minimum vitamins and minerals needed to prevent deficiencies
Term
Fat soluble vitamins
Definition
• Excess accumulates in tissue, can be toxic (liver damage, etc.)
Term
Water soluble vitamins
Definition
• Excess excreted
• B vitamins
• Pantothenic acid
• Folate
• Biotin
• Vitamin C
Term
Vitamin D deficiency can cause
Definition
rickets
Term
USA has a greater footprint than its ecological capacity (actual
resource base of a nation)
Definition
overpopulation AND overconsumption…richest countries (20% of
world) use 86% of world resources
Term
Vitamin C deficiency can cause
Definition
scurvy
Term
Agencies that predict future population are moving closer to a
consensus that:
Definition
•the world population will continue to grow until after the
middle of this century
•reaching a peak of around 10-15 billion (up from today's 7
billion) and then
•slowing by the end of the centur
Term
OBESITY: human health problem
Definition
-weight 20% or more above appropriate weight for height
-excess body fat
-low levels of exercise
~28% women and 10% men in U.S. are obese
-estimated 1 in 4 people in U.S.
Term
Obesity contributes to:
Definition
diabetes, colon cancer, breast cancer, and cardiovascular disease
Term
Obesity due to
Definition
hormonal, metabolic, social factors... increased portion sizes, increased refined sugar
Term
intraspecific competition=
Definition
same species
(fighting, etc.)
Term
genetic causes for obesity being researched:
Definition
leptin hormone in mice, suppresses appetite
Term
interspecific competition=
Definition
2 different
species, interaction is
negative for both
Term
Body-Mass Index
Definition
• An indicator of obesity-related health risk
• BMI = Weight (lbs) X 700 -----------------------------
Height (inches)2
• BMI greater than or equal to 27 indicates health risk
Term
Biggest contributor to declining biological diversity (biodiversity)
Definition
Human population
Term
ecological niche
Definition
role in
the ecosystem (herbivore, carnivore, producer etc), its tolerance
limits (e.g. soil pH, humidity), requirements for shelter, nesting
sites etc
Term
Habitat=
Niche=
Definition
(habitat ~ address, niche ~ occupation
Term
Pollution
Definition
Garbage
The U.S. throws away around 200 million tons of garbage each day!!
Decomposition Rates:
Orange Peel--- 6 months
Cigarette Butt--- 10-12 years
Plastic Bag--- 10-20 years
Disposable Diaper--- 250-500 years Soda Can--- 200-500 years
Styrofoam--- Never
Americans go through 2.5 million plastic bottles every hour
Term
Mexico study on pollution
Definition
pollution leading to increase in population of octopus... and decrease in abalone as a result
(food chain being affected)
Term
Fragmentation of habitats
Definition
another human activity that decreases biodiversity
Conservation biology attempts to correct declining biodiversity: “natural bridge” in Yellowstone
Term
Deforestation
Definition
-subsistence agriculture (growing food for family)
-logging
-cattle ranches
-fuel wood
-commercial farming (soybeans, etc)
=soils erode, lakes and rivers decline, desertification can occur, soils left with few nutrients, lose biodiversity
Term
competitive exclusion principle=
Definition
If two species compete directly for a limited resource, one species will eliminate the other from that resource
“complete competitors cannot coexist”
applies to species occupying the same or very similar niches
Term
Introduced Species
Definition
invasive or exotic species– moved to a new geographic location
-often disrupt their “adopted” community, reduce biodiversity
Term
Fundamental niche
Definition
full spectrum of resources potentially available to an organism
Term
Realized niche
Definition
resources actually available to an organism
Term
Toxins
Definition
DDT- pesticide
PCBs- coolants, industry
Pesticides
Phthalates- plastics
Dioxins- industry, waste incineration
Asbestos- fireproofing
Heavy Metals- industry, acid rain
Term
resource partitioning
Definition
slight differentiation of niches
Term
Global warming
Definition
=long-term increase in Earth’s average temperatures
-caused by carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide etc. (=greenhouse gases)
-using fossil fuels, burning rain forests, etc.
Term
resource partitioning reduces...
Definition
competition among coexisting species
Term
Character displacement
Definition
tendency for two species to diverge in characteristics and resource use
Term
Concern about methane “chimney” in Arctic Ocean
Definition
no longer trapped under layer of permafrost
Term
When did CO2 and other greenhouse gases begin to increase?
Definition
CO2 , CH4, and N2O changed slowly after the end of the last Ice Age, but began to increase rapidly about 200 years ago
Term
Why do we think that CO2 released by human activities is causing the increase in the atmosphere?
Definition
• Seasonal cycles in CO2 result from photosynthesis and respiration
• Such short-term flows of carbon cannot explain the upward trend
• The trend has to result from carbon that has been stored for long periods of time, such as in fossil fuels and soils
Term
Popuation numbers of giant barrel sponges (“redwoods of the deep”) are exploding off Florida Keys–
Compete with corals, which have been dying for a number of reasons, most related to global climate change, such as:
Definition
-increase in atmospheric CO2 leads to increase in ocean acidification
-corals remove excess CO2 from the atmosphere
- amounts of CO2 in atmosphere have gone beyond what corals can uptake, so that oceans are becoming more acidic as higher amounts of CO2 dissolve in water
-higher acidity reduces corals' ability to construct calcium carbonate skeletons
Term
How can scientists decide which factors are actually responsible for climate change?
Definition
• Scientists model both human and natural factors to determine which best explain the observed climate changes
• Both natural and human factors are needed to explain the climate change that has already happened
• Human factors are particularly important in explaining the rapid temperature increase in the last three decades
Term
Do the models prove that humans are causing climate change?
Definition
• Models cannot prove that humans are involved; however, they show that the changes observed so far are consistent with human causes.
• Models do not account for some complexities of climate, such as the feedback effects of water vapor and cloud formation.
• Scientists consider the models sufficient to say that it is very likely (>90% probability) that the climate change observed in the last 50 years is not a result of natural effects alone.
Term
U.N. Kyoto Protocol
Definition
treaty negotiated in 1997, took effect in 2005, covered 164 countries worldwide (U.S. did not sign)

- goal of each participating country was to reduce greenhouse- gas emissions to 1990 levels by 2012
Term
Some plans to lower global average temperatures:
Definition
•Carbon dioxide removal
•Sequester CO2 from coal plants- inject emissions into stable underground formations (expensive)
•Artificial trees which draw CO2 underground or bind it to other chemicals to neutralize its greenhouse effect •Ocean fertilization with iron particles, increases plankton growthandthusCO removal.Whendie,CO remainson
sea floor with them
*Solar radiation management (faster)
-inject sulfur into stratosphere to reflect
sunlight (like volcanoes do, which cools planet)
Term
Allopatric populations
Definition
closely related species that are geographically separate
Term
Sympatric populations
Definition
geographically overlapping, likely to see character displacement
Term
Ozone “hole”
Definition
-ozone in the lower atmosphere is pollution; in the stratosphere
it’s healthy and essential to life on land! -shields Earth from UV radiation
-chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) in aerosols, coolants, packaging, solvents, etc. destroy stratospheric ozone
-CFCs account for 80% of total ozone depletion
Term
Predation
Definition
=consumption of prey species by predator species
Term
Which type of natural selection responsible for character displacement??
Definition
Directional selection
Term
Negative effects of Ozone depletion:
Definition
=decline in phytoplankton productivity
-greater UV exposure for humans, animals
•UV exposure linked to cataracts, skin cancer, and weakened immune system in humans
•CFCs being used today will deplete stratospheric ozone for at least 50 years (very stable)
Term
•Some evidence that ozone is slowly starting to rebound
Definition
CFC's decreasing worldwide since mid-90's
Term
Biogeochemical Cycles:
Definition
= movement of nutrient elements/inorganic substances through biosphere by physical and biological processes
Term
Physical processes
Definition
Atmosphere, earth’s soil and crust, bodies of water
-moves through slowly
Term
Predator and prey species coevolve… examples??
Definition
rattle snake venous becomes more toxic
heliconius caterpillar and egg mimicry of passion flower vine
Bullhorn acacia tree and pseudo
Term
biological processes
Definition
Producers, consumers, detrivores
-moves through quickly
Term
Water Cycle
Definition
Limiting factor in terrestrial ecosystems
97% water is in oceans 2% in glaciers
1% in lakes, rivers, & groundwater
Negligible amount in atmosphere
Term
Carbon Cycle
Definition
Main facts to know:
Release CO2:
respiration burning fossil fuels deforestation volcanic eruptions decomposition
Take in CO2:
photosynthesis
oceans
Term
When an animal or a plant dies, 1 of 2 things happens to the carbon in it:
Definition
-it’s respired by decomposers (and released to the atmosphere)
or
-it’s buried intact and ultimately forms coal, oil, or natural gas (fossil fuels)
Term
Nitrogen Cycle:
Definition
~80% dry air= nitrogen
Nitrogen important for organisms:
BACTERIA essential to nitrogen cycle: break atmospheric nitrogen down into forms usable by plants (ammonia,nitrites,nitrates),
but also return nitrogen to atmosphere
Term
Phosphorous Cycle
Definition
SLOWEST CYLCE
needed for nucleic acids, ATP, bones, teeth, etc. - sedimentary (not atmospheric) cycle
-from soil into plants, returned to soil by decomposers
-can erode into ocean, remain unavailable for millions of years
Term
Biome
Definition
A type of ecosystem that covers a large geographical region and has a similar climate; characterized by distinct type of vegetation and its availability of freshwater
Term
Example Panama rain forest
Definition
agouti eats palm tree seeds, bury and save for later
-ocelot feed on agouti (~70% mortality rate!)
So… palm trees need agouti to move and bury their seeds, but also need ocelots to prevent at least some agouti from returning to eat hidden stashes
Term
Terrestrial Biomes
Vertical Stratification:
Definition
1. Canopy layer
2. Low tree layer
3. Shrub understory
4. Ground layer
5. Forest floor (litter layer)
6. Root Layer
Term
Tropical Forest
Definition
Plants: closed canopy
Animals: high animal diversity Temperature: 25°C (77°F); all near equator Human Impact: population growth is destroying the forests
Rain forests: 200-400cm (~6.5’-13’)
Dry forests: 150-200cm (~5’-6.5’)
Term
Wolves in Yellowstone
Definition
-wolves removed in early 20th century:
-willow, aspen, etc. declines due to elk browsing
- trees rebounded after wolves reintroduced in 1990s
-wolf kills support more scavengers
-beaver recolonized streams thanks to abundant willows
-pronghorn lost fewer calves to coyote
-increased streamside vegetation reduced erosion, provided cover for birds, fish, and invertebrates
-wolves can only persist when tolerated by humans though (cattle farmers, sheepherders especially), so trying nonlethal approaches to reduce losses to wolves… trained guard dogs, fencing, etc
Term
Desert
Definition
Plants: low, scattered vegetation, lots of bare ground Animals: snakes, lizards, scorpions, ants, beetles, birds, seed-eating rodents; many nocturnal
Temp.& Precip.: 50 to -30°C (122 to -22°F); 30cm (11.8”) Human Impact: irrigated agriculture and urbanization have reduced the natural biodiversity of deserts.
Term
Savanna/ Tropical Grassland
Definition
Plants: grasses, scattered trees
Animals: large herbivorous animals; insects are
dominant.
Temp. & Precip.: warm year-round (24°C/70°F); 3-50cm (1”-19.7”); dry season can be 8-9 months; most near equator Human Impact: cattle-ranching & over hunting.
Term
Temperate Grassland
Definition
Plants: grasses
Animals: large grazers such as bison and wild horses. Temp.& Precip.: cold winters (-10°C/14°F),
hot summers (~30°C/86°F)
Human Impact: most has been converted to farmland in N. America and Eurasia.
Term
defense mechanisms of prey species
Definition
Camouflage, transparency, advertise unpleasant attributes(aposematic coloration), divert attention, playing dead, decorate self using environment, living in groups; mobbing predator, disruptive coloration
Term
Chaparral
Definition
Plants: high diversity, shrubs and small trees, lots of grasses Animals: deer, goat, amphibians, small mammals, birds,
reptiles, insects.
Temp. & Precip.: mostly mild (10-12°C/50’s°F); summer
between 30°-40°C/86°-104°F); 30-50cm (~11.8-19.7”); very dry, adapted to wildfires
Human Impact: heavily settled, agriculture & urbanization.
Term
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Definition
Plants: diverse plants; broadleaf deciduous trees dominant Animals: diverse
Temp. & Precip.: winter ~0°C/32°F, 75-200 cm (28-60”) rainfall; four distinct seasons
Human Impact: heavily settled, logging, land clearing, agriculture, & urbanization destroyed all original forests; have gradually returned to their former range.
Term
Coniferous Forest (Taiga/Boreal)
Definition
Plants: cone-bearing trees, such as pine, spruce, fir,
and hemlock
Animals: diverse mammals-- moose, brown bears, Siberian tigers, migratory and non-migratory birds, insects.
Temp. & Precip.: cold and long
winters (up to -70°C/
-94°F); 30-70cm (~11.8-28”), snow usually; summers may be hot Human Impact: heavy logging.
Term
Mullerian mimicry
Definition
several well-protected species resemble each other
Term
Tundra
Definition
Plants: lichens, mosses, grasses, small trees and shrubs Animals: musk ox, migratory caribou & reindeer, bears, wolves, foxes, migratory birds.
Temp. & Precip.: Long & cold winters (-30°C/-22°F), short summers (>10°C/50°F); 20-60cm (~7.9-24”) Human Impact: not significant, sparsely populated; but has become the focus of mineral and oil extraction.
Term
Batesian mimicry
Definition
unprotected species resembles a harmful species
Term
Lakes & Ponds (Lentic)
Definition
bodies of standing freshwater
Term
Parasitism
Definition
one species benefits, other is harmed
Term
Streams & Rivers (Lotic)
Definition
constantly moving
Term
pathogen=
Definition
if parasite causes disease and/or death to the host
Term
Wetlands:
Definition
shallow; soil is saturated with water;marshes, bogs, swamps
Term
endoparasite
Definition
tapeworm, heartworm
Term
Estuaries
Definition
where rivers meet the ocean;
shallow & sunlit; lots of nutrients
Term
ectoparasite
Definition
tick, flea
Term
Intertidal zones
Definition
along the shore; rocky, sandy, or
muddy beach exposed at low tide, covered at high tide
Term
social parasite
Definition
cowbird
Term
Oceanic pelagic:
Definition
open blue water; 70% of biosphere
Term
Coral reefs
Definition
diverse group of Cnidarians form corals— house fish, invertebrates, plant-life; high water clarity
Term
Marine benthic
Definition
sea floor; most receives no sunlight
Term
Symbiosis
Definition
close, generally long-term associations between two or more species
Term
Marshes
Definition
None woody plants
Term
Swamps
Definition
Trees and shrubs
Term
Mutualism
Definition
both species benefit
ex:- fungi and roots of plants (mycorrhizae)
- flowering plants and pollinators
- ants and bullhorn acacia trees
Term
Bogs
Definition
Stagnant and acidic

Acids and phenols are excreted by mosses in bogs- “Bog bodies” in England, 2000 years old, soft tissues are preserved (no bacteria) while acid destroys bones and teeth
Term
Estuary
Definition
high nutrients (cyanobacteria convert atmospheric N into usable form for plants), nurseries for fish and birds
Term
Marine benthic
Definition
Unusual fish (and red-lipped worms!), hydrothermal vents (heat and nutrients alter seafloor conditions)
Term
Montane pitcher plant, Borneo
Definition
largest carnivorous plant in world
Nectar on “lid” attracts tree shrews, plant feeds off of shrew droppings (defecate to mark territory while eating)– gets most of nutritional needs this way! (also eats insects in lower altitudes)
Term
Commensalism
Definition
one benefits, other is unaffected
ex: - epiphytes on tropical trees
- bird nesting in tree
- shark and remora
Term
Ecosystem
Definition
organisms and their physical environment, interact through:
1. Flow of energy
2. Cycling of materials
Term
The Four Major Players in ecosystems
Definition
• Abiotic environment
• Primary producers (Autotrophs)
• Consumers (Heterotrophs)
• Decomposers and detritivores
– heterotrophs – eat detritus
(dead plants and animals, and waste products)
Term
Primary producers are
Definition
autotrophs (phototrophs or chemotrophs)
Term
Primary consumers are
Definition
herbivores
Term
Secondary consumers are
Definition
carnivores
Term
Prokaryotes can be:
Definition
saprobes or parasites:
aerobes and anaerobes
Some prokaryotes have specific nutritional requirements, others can use almost any organic molecule (including petroleum!) as food...
if a synthetic molecule cannot be broken down by bacteria, it is called “non-biodegradable”
Term
Saprobes
Definition
decomposers that absorb nutrients from dead organisms
Term
Parasites
Definition
absorb nutrients from the body of living host
Term
Obligate aerobes
Definition
must use oxygen
Term
Facultative aerobes
Definition
can use oxygen; but not necessary
Term
Obligate anaerobes
Definition
poisoned by oxygen
Term
Aerotolerant anaerobes
Definition
tolerate oxygen but do not use it
Term
Adaptations for Feeding in Protists
Definition
•Heterotrophic:
•Phagotrophs- ingestive feeding •Osmotrophs- absorptive feeding
•Autotrophic
•Mixotrophs- switch between autotroph and heterotroph
depending on the environment
•Saprobes
•Parasites
Term
Phagotrophs
Definition
ingestive feeding
Term
Osmotrophs
Definition
absorptive feeding
Term
Adaptations for Feeding in Fungi
Definition
-substrate feeders, live in the food source.
substrate= soil, rotting log, piece of bread, living tissue, etc. -absorptive feeding/ osmotrophs (absorb nutrients) -extracellular digestion (digest food before absorbing it)
-secrete enzymes like animals
-store surplus nutrients like animals
Term
Haustorium
Definition
the tip of the hyphae
Term
Harms of fungi to animals and plants
Definition
Many fungi cause animal and plant diseases
May also be parasitic on animals
Term
Adaptation for Feeding in Animals
Definition
suspension, substrate, fluid and bulk feeders
Term
Suspension feeders
Definition
filter/sift food particles from water
Term
Substrate feeders
Definition
live in the food source and eat as they burrow
Term
Fluid feeders
Definition
suck nutrient-rich fluids (parasites or pollinators)
Term
Bulk feeders
Definition
eat large pieces of food using adaptations such as claws, teeth, pincers, fangs, etc...
Term
trophic levels
Definition
Species are assigned to trophic levels, based on main source of nutrition and energy... thus trophic levels represent the “distance” a species is from the sun
(primary producers are the closest to the sun, always!)
Term
Energy is transferred from sun through
Definition
food chains
Term
food web
Definition
many connected food chains
Term
Disturbance=
Definition
event that changes a community, removes organisms from it, and alters resource availability
Term
Keystone species
Definition
species whose impact on its community or ecosystem is much larger and more influential than would be expected from mere abundance
Both top predators (e.g. wolves) as well as less conspicuous species (e.g. tropical figs and some microorganisms) often play essential roles in their community
-Sea otters keep sea urchins in check, prevent them from destroying kelp forests
-Filter-feeding Krill is a keystone species in the complex Antarctic food web
Term
Intermediate disturbance hypothesis
Definition
moderate disturbances can create opportunities for greater species diversity.
Term
The flow of energy in ecosystems is linear which means:
Definition
energy cannot be reused by organisms
Term
at each transfer, about ( ) energy lost as heat and waste
Definition
90%
Term
How is energy lost?
Definition
When one animal feeds off of another, there is a loss of heat (energy) in the process-
Additional loss of energy occurs during respiration and movement of animals, and during photosynthesis in plants
Term
Ecological Succession
Definition
community development over time, gradual change in plant and animal life in an area, especially after a disturbance
Term
Food chains are limited by:
Definition
the inefficiency of energy transfer along the chain
Term
Pioneer community
Definition
initial colonizers of area, usually r species
Term
climax community
Definition
most stable and diverse, characterize the region
Term
*** ~( %) energy transfer from one trophic level to the next***
Definition
10
Term
Ecological pyramids
Definition
Producers= first trophic level, always the lowest level of a pyramid
Term
Pyramid of energy:
Definition
~10% energy goes up to next level
NEVER inverted!!
Term
Primary succession
Definition
occurs in a newly formed, often lifeless area (begins with soil formation)
Term
Ecological Pyramids of Biomass (dry weight)
Definition
rarely, but may be inverted
Term
Secondary succession
Definition
occurs in a disturbed area, faster than primary b/c soil already exists
Term
Pyramid of numbers
Definition
may be inverted
ex:numbers of consumers at each level
Term
BIOACCUMULATION of toxic
chemicals:
Definition
-because each organism eats many organisms at a lower level in the chain, and many toxins are not degraded, organisms at higher trophic levels have much higher concentrations in their systems
Another example: mercury and fish (tuna at the top of the food chain)
Predatory fish (tuna, swordfish, shark and mackerel etc.) can have mercury concentrations in their bodies that are 10,000 times higher than those of their surrounding habitat!
Term
Gross primary productivity (GPP)
Definition
the amount of light energy that is converted to chemical energy by photosynthesis per unit time
Term
Net primary productivity (NPP)
Definition
GPP minus the energy used by the primary producers for respiration (R) (for maintenance and growth)
• NPP=GPP - R • Expressed as:
– Energy per unit area per unit time (J/m2/yr) OR
– Biomass (weight) of vegetation added to the ecosystem per unit area per unit time (g/m2/yr)
Term
Eutrophication
Definition
lakes, ponds “age"
-due to nutrient enrichment, resulting in increased plant and/or algal growth… decomposers multiply, use up most of oxygen
-water quality declines, lake may eventually be filled in by plants and soil
-occurs naturally over thousands of years
-human use (fertilizers and pollution) has accelerated
Term
Primary Production
Definition
-The conversion of light energy to chemical energy is called “gross primary production.” (photosynthesis)
-Plants use the energy captured in photosynthesis for maintenance and growth.
-The energy that is accumulated in plant biomass is called “net primary production.”
Term
Greatest average primary productivity
Definition
Coral reefs and algal beds
Term
sucrose is main solute in ()
Definition
phloem
Term
Greatest percentage of Earth's primary productivity
Definition
Open ocean
Term
Most productive terrestrial biome
Definition
rainforest
Term
Limits on Aquatic Primary Productivity
Definition
•Light
-depth of light penetration (by 20m, only 5-10% radiation remains)
•Nutrients
-phosphorus, nitrogen, iron
Term
Limits on Terrestrial Primary Productivity
Definition
•Temperature
•Moisture
Term
Transport in phloem always moves down sucrose gradient, from ""
Definition
"source to sink"... excess of system to deficit of system
Term
source=

sink=
Definition
leaves

roots, buds, stems, flowers, fruits
Term
Nutritional Requirements for plants
Definition
-nitrogen, potassium, phosphorus, calcium, magnesium, sulfur, plus others in trace amounts
-From SOIL (or feces)
-Water (hydrogen, oxygen) -CO2 (carbon)
Term
mycorrhizae relationships are in- what percent of seed plants!!
Definition
90%
Term
Translocation
Definition
sugar loading into phloem causes water to diffuse into phloem, pressure builds, and water and sugar flow
-sugars move into a sink
=pressure-flow model
Term
parasitic flowers
Definition
may tap into vascular tissues of another plant, and have no leaves/roots of their own
Term
What is the world’s largest flower
Definition
The corpse flower (Rafflesia arnoldii)
smells like rotting flesh, attracts flies which pollinate
Term
Cyanobacteria supply what to plants?
Definition
Nitrogen
Term
Photosynthesis- Transpiration Compromise
Definition
•Rate of transpiration is greatest on sunny, warm, dry, windy days that increase evaporation of water
Term
Xerophytes
Definition
(xero=dry, phyte=plant)
•Small, thick leaves reduce surface area
•Some shed leaves during driest months, others (cacti) store water in fleshy stems to use in dry conditions
•Stomata in depressions that shelter from dry wind and provide increased humidity around the stomata
•Can tolerate high leaf temperatures
Term
Xylem
Definition
vascular tissue that transports water and dissolved minerals upward from the roots
Term
Phloem
Definition
vascular tissue that transports sugars from the leaves or storage tissues to other parts of plant
Term
heartwood
Definition
“dead” xylem, no longer conducts water
Term
Guard cells
Definition
of stomata swell and open in light, unless vacuoles have lost their water (drought)
Term
sapwood
Definition
“live” xylem, still conduct water (but still made of dead xylem cells!)
Term
Stomata
Definition
openings on the underside (WHY?) of leaves that allow the exchange of gases, and evaporation of water from the plant
Term
Cohesion-Tension Theory
Definition
•Sun’s energy indirectly powers transpiration
•Water is cohesive (water molecules are attracted to each other and thus “stick together” due to hydrogen bonding)
•Tension exerted on water by evaporation at leaf’s surface pulls a continuous stream of water from the soil into the root
Term
How many gallons of water a day can a large oak tree loose?
Definition
500
Term
Transpiration is
Definition
loss of water from leaves
of plant
-pulls water and dissolved minerals upward
-due to cohesion of water molecules and adhesion of water to cellulose of xylem walls
Term
Transpiration causes evaporative cooling which can:
Definition
can lower the temperature of leaves by 10- 15° C (prevents denaturing of proteins)
Term
Transpiration affected by:
Definition
-temperature
-wind
-sunlight
-humidity
-stomata operation
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