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Bio 107 Exam 2
Enzymes, Cellular Respiration, Photosynthesis, Mitosis, Meiosis
155
Biology
Undergraduate 2
03/09/2010

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Term
ATP
Definition
energy in the cell. Turns into ADP + P through cellular respiration
Term
Enzyme
Definition
macromolecule that acts as a catalyst
Term
Catalyst
Definition
chemical agent that speeds up a reaction without being consumed
Term
Activation Energy
Definition
energy required to start a reaction by breaking bonds. In organisims catalysts are used to lower Ea barrier
Term
Substrate
Definition
Reactant an enzyme acts on
Term
enzyme-substrate complex
Definition
enzyme and substrate when bonded. enzyme converts substrate to product
Term
Active site
Definition
where enzyme binds to substrate. substrate held in by hydrogen bonds and ionic bonds
Term
Induced fit
Definition
active site changes to fit substrate better
Term
Effect of temperature on enzymes
Definition
increases productivity until temp gets too high and then it makes bonds fall apart so that substrate is not held in active site.
Term
Cofactor
Definition
nonprotein enzyme helpers
Term
Competitive inhibitor
Definition
chemical that competes for active site on enzyme.
Term
Noncompetitive inhibitors
Definition
attaches to different part of enzyme and changes active site so it is less productive
Term
Benefits of inhibitors
Definition
allows body to control what processes occur and in what quanity they occur
Term
allosteric regulation
Definition
a substrate attaches to one active site and it locks in all attached active sites in an active position
Term
Fermentation
Definition
anaerobic process that degrades sugar. uses glycolysis. NAD+ = NADH = NAD+ = cycled.
Term
Cellular respiration includes:
Definition
aerobic and anaerobic processes
Term
Cellular respiration equation
Definition
C6H1206 + 6O2 = 6CO2 + 6H20 + ATP
Term
Oxidation
Definition
loss of electrons
Term
Reduction
Definition
gain of electrons
Term
Reducing agent
Definition
agent that is oxidized
Term
Oxidizing agent
Definition
agent that is reduced
Term
NAD+
Definition
coenzyme electron carrier, oxidizing agent in respiration. Becomes NADH
Term
Dehydrogenase
Definition
removes 2 e- and 2 p+ from glucose and delivers 2e- and 1p+ to NAD+ making NADH + H+
Term
NADH
Definition
NAD+ + H+. electron with 2e- and 1p+. represents stored energy and can be tapped to make ATP
Term
Electron Transport Chain (Cellular Respiration and Photosynthesis)
Definition
chain of proteins that break fall of high energy e- into sever energy releasing steps. e- fall from high energy levels to low energy levels causing redox reactions. lowest proteins are most electronegative
Term
Location of Glycolosis
Definition
Cytosol
Term
Location of Krebs Cycle
Definition
mitochondrial matrix
Term
Location of Electron Transport Chain
Definition
Mitochondrial membrane and thylakoid membrane
Term
Oxidative phosphorylation
Definition
ATP synthesis powered by redox reactions in ETC and chemiosmosis
Term
Substrate-level phosphorylation
Definition
reactions of gylcolyis and krebs cycle that transfer phosphate groups from substrate to ADP instead of addion and inorganic phosphate
Term
Gylcolosis: Consumes
Definition
1 Glucose, 2 ATP, 2 NAD+
Term
Gylcolysis: Produces
Definition
4 ATP, 2 NADH + H+, 2 Pyruvate + H20
Term
Gylcolysis: Net Gain
Definition
2 ATP, 2 NADH + H+, 2 Pyruvate + H2O
Term
Cellular Respiration Steps
Definition
1) Glycolysis
2) Acetyl CoA
3) Krebs Cycle
4) Electron Transport Chain
Term
Location of Acetyl CoA
Definition
from cytosol across mitochondrial membrane and into mitochondria
Term
Acetyl CoA: Consumes
Definition
2 Pyruvate, 2 NAD+, Coenzyme A
Term
Acetyl CoA: Produces
Definition
CO2, 2 NADH + H+, Acetyl CoA
Term
Properties of Acetyl CoA
Definition
acetate~coenzyme A: weak, unstable bond that makes it unstable and highly reactive, producing a lot of energy
Term
Pyruvate enters mitochondria by:
Definition
transport proteins
Term
FAD
Definition
elecron carier that becomes FADH2. Accepts 2H+ and 2e-. Enters cycle at Kreb Cycle
Term
FADH2
Definition
FAD + 2H+ + 2e-. carries electrons to ETC. enters at complex 2, produces less ATP than NADH
Term
1 turn of Krebs Cycle: Consumes
Definition
1 Acetyl CoA, 3 NAD+, 1 FAD, 1 ADP + Phosphate group
Term
1 Turn of Krebs Cycle: Produces
Definition
CoA, 2 CO2, 3 NADH + H+, 1 FADH2, 1 ATP
Term
Net ATP produced after substrate-level phosphorylation
Definition
4 ATP
Term
CR: ETC, Complex I
Definition
e- transferred from NADH to 1st ETC molecule
Term
CR: ETC, Complex II
Definition
e- transferred from FADH2 to ETC. because its added at lower energy level, 1/3 less energy is produced than NADH
Term
CR: ETC, End
Definition
e- passed to VERY electronegative 1/2 O2 which forms H2O
Term
Chemiosmosis
Definition
uses H+ gradient to use ATP synthase to make ATP
Term
Chemiosmosis
Definition
uses H+ gradient to use ATP synthase to make ATP. Pulls H+ from intermembrane/thylakoid space through ATP synthase and into mitochondrial matrix/stroma, forming ATP in the process
Term
ATP synthase
Definition
enzyme that makes ATP from ADP + phosphate group. made of polypeptides.
Term
Electron Transport Chain: Products
Definition
H+ in intermembrane/thylakoid space, H2O
Term
Proton-motive force
Definition
H+ gradient
Term
Cellular Respiration net ATP? How much from each part?
Definition
Glycolysis: 2 ATP
Krebs Cycle: 2 ATP
ETC: 34 ATP
Net: 38 ATP
Term
Anaerobic respiration
Definition
can use ETC but used different e- acceptor at end instead of oxygen
Term
2 types of Fermentation
Definition
Alcohol Fermentation and Lactic acid fermentation
Term
Alcohol Fermentation
Definition
changes pyruvate to ethanol by releasing CO2 from pyruvate and then NADH forms and ethanol results
Term
Lactic acid Fermentation
Definition
changes pyruvate to lactate by reducing pyruvate with NADH to produce lactate. No CO2 forms. occurs during exercise
Term
Beta Oxidation
Definition
metabolic sequence to break down fatty acids. Generates acetyl CoA, NADH, and FADH2
Term
Phosphofructokinase
Definition
allosteric enzyme that slows glycolysis. synchronized glycolysis and krebs cycle
Term
Chlorophyll
Definition
green pigment in chloroplasts that absorbs light energy
Term
Mesophyll
Definition
tissue in interior of leaf wehre chloroplasts are found
Term
Stomata
Definition
pore that lets in CO2 and lets out O2
Term
Stroma
Definition
dense fluid in chloroplast. similar to mitochondrial matrix in CR
Term
Thylakoids
Definition
Interconnected membrane sac that separates stroma from thylakoid space. Stacked in chloroplast
Term
Thylakoid membrane
Definition
location of chlorophyll and ETC
Term
Photosynthesis equation
Definition
6CO2 + 12 H2O + Light Energy = C6H1206 +6O2 + 6 H20
Term
2 parts of Photosynthesis
Definition
Light reactions (Photosystem I, ETC, Photosystem II) and Calvin Cycle
Term
NADP+
Definition
electron carrier. NAD+ + Phosphate group. Becomes NADPH
Term
NADPH
Definition
NADP+ + 2e- + H+
Term
Photophosphorylation
Definition
use to chemiosmosis to add phosphate group to ADP. similar to oxidative phosphorylation in CR
Term
Photosystem composition and location
Definition
composed to reaction-center complex surrounded by light-harvesting complex. In thylakoid membrane
Term
Reaction-center complex
Definition
protein complex in photosystem with a pair of chlorophyll a molecules
Term
Light-harvesting complex
Definition
various pigment molecules attacted to proteins. acts as antenna for reaction-center complex
Term
primary electron acceptor
Definition
molecule in reaction-center complex that accepts e- from special chlorophyll a pairs and transfers them to ETC
Term
Photosystem II chlorophyll a
Definition
P680
Term
Photosystem I cholorphyll a
Definition
P700
Term
Photosystem II process
Definition
photons hit pigment molecule, exciting e-. e- falls energy levels, exciting nearby e-. passes on until reaches P680 whos excited e- move to primary electron acceptor who then passes them to ETC. "Hole" in P680 is filled by an e- generated from water splitting.
Term
Water splitting
Definition
In Photosystem II. H2O molecule is split. Provides 2e- to fill hole in P680 and 1/2 O2 which joins another 1/2 O2 and becomes the O2 waste product
Term
Photosynthesis ETC I
Definition
transfers e- from PSII to PSI. produces ATP and H+ gradient used in chemiosmosis. e- leave chaing and fill "hole" in P700+ in PSI
Term
Photosystem I
Definition
occurs 2nd. e- in pigment molecule excited by photons and pass excitement to P700 which passes excited e- to Primary electron acceptor, creating P700+. PEA passes e- to ETC II. "Hole" is filled with e- from ETC I.
Term
Photosynthesis ETC II
Definition
takes excited e- from PS I. does not produce ATP or H+ gradient. Instead NADP+ reductase transfers e- to NADP+, forming NADPH
Term
NADP+ reductase
Definition
enzyme at end of Photosynthisis ETC II that catalyzes transfer of e- to NADP+
Term
Cyclic Electron Flow
Definition
Used Photosystem I but not Photosystem II. P700=PEA=cytochrome complex=generates ATP=P700
Term
Cytochrome complex
Definition
iron-containing proteins in ETC, generates ATP
Term
Benefits of Cyclic Electron Flow
Definition
may protect cells from light-inflicted damage
Term
Cyclic electron flow produces ______ and doesn't use/produce ________ + _______
Definition
ATP, NADPH, O2
Term
Chemiosmosis: CR vs PS: e- from
Definition
PS: from H2O
CR: from organic molecules
Term
Calvin Cycle: consumes
Definition
9 ATP, 6 NADPH
Term
Calvin Cycle: net gain
Definition
1 G3P
Term
Calvin Cycle: Phases
Definition
1) Carbon fixation
2) Reduction
3) Regeneration of CO2 acceptor (RuBP)
Term
Carbon fixation
Definition
Phase 1 in Calvin Cycle. CO2 enters 1 by 1 and is attached to ribulose biphosphate (RuBP). 6 carbon intermediate is formed and immediately splits into 2 3-phosphoglycerate
Term
Ribulose biphosphate (RuBP)
Definition
5 carbon sugar that attaches to CO2 in Carbon fixation during Calvin Cycle
Term
Rubisco
Definition
enzyme that catalyzes the attachment of CO2 to ribulose biphosphate (RuBP). most abundant protein in Earth
Term
Calvin Cycle: Phase 2 and products
Definition
each 3-phosphglycerate gains a phosphate group from ATP forming 3 bisphosphoglycerate. e- from NADPH then reduce 3-BP who lose phosphate group and become G3P
Products: 6 G3P (1 is expelled, 5 are recycled)
Term
Calvin Cycle: Phase 3
Definition
5 G3P become 3 ribulose biphosphate (RuBP). takes 3 ATP
Term
Cell Cycle
Definition
life of a cell from formation to division
Term
Genome
Definition
all the genetic info of a cell. the endowment of DNA
Term
Somatic cells
Definition
all body cells except reproductive cells. have 46 chromosomes in 23 pairs.
Term
Gametes
Definition
sex cells, sperm and eggs, have 23 chromosomes in humans (1 set)
Term
Chromatin
Definition
complex of DNA and associated protein molecules
Term
Centromere
Definition
center of sister chromatid
Term
Mitosis
Definition
division of the nucleus. 2n = 2n
Term
Cytokinesis
Definition
- division of the cytoplasm
- usually well underway by end of telophase
- cleavage furrow forms, pinching cell in two
Term
Meiosis
Definition
produces nonidentical daughter cells. 2n = n chromosomes. Occurs in gonads.
Term
Mitotic phase
Definition
mitosis and cytokinesis. the shortest part of the cell cycle
Term
Interphase
Definition
Consists of G1 phase, S phase, and G2 phase. The cell grows and duplicates all organelles and DNA
Term
Interphase: G1 Phase
Definition
Growth 1 Phase. Cell starts growing a doubling organelles. needs more nutrients and energy and can stills top mitosis if it wants.
Term
Interphase: G1 Phase
Definition
Growth 1 Phase. Cell starts growing a doubling organelles. needs more nutrients and energy and can stills top mitosis if it wants.
Term
S Phase
Definition
Synthesis phase (phase 2) of Interphase. DNA is coppied. 46 strands of DNA become 92 strands. DNA strands turn into sister chromatids.
Term
G2 Phase
Definition
Growth 2 phase of interphase (phase 3). Cell gets ready for mitosis. centrioles become activated. Cell grows and stockpiles food again.
Term
Mitotic spindle
Definition
struture of fibers made of microtubules and associated proteins. Eventually attaches to centromere of sister chromatid and a centrosome
Term
centrosome
Definition
subcellular region containing material that functions throughout cell cycle to orgainize the cells microtubules. Has a pair of centrioles at center.
Term
Aster
Definition
a radial array of short microtubules that extends from each centrosome
Term
Kinetochore
Definition
structure of poteins associated with specific secions of chromosomal DNA at centromere. When they are captured by microtubules the chromosome begins to move toward the poles, creating a tug-of-war that ends up with the chromosomes lined up in the center.
Term
metaphase plate of the cell
Definition
where the chromosomes line up in the center of the cell
Term
Phases of Mitosis
Definition
Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase, Cytokinesis
Term
Prophase & Prometaphase
Definition
- chromatin fibers coil into chromosomes
- nucleoli disappears
- duplicated chromosomes appear as 2 identical sister chromatids joined at centromeres
- mitotic spindle begins to form
- centrosomes more away from each other and microtubules between them lengthen and then invade nuclear area
- nuclear envelope fragments
- chromatids develop a kinetochore which attaches to microtubules
Term
Metaphase
Definition
- longest stage of mitosis
- centrosomes are at opposite poles of cell
- chromosomes line up on metaphase plate
- each chromosomes kinetochore is attached to kinetochore microtubules from opposite poles
Term
Anaphase
Definition
- shortest stage of mitosis
- sister chromatids of each pair part, each becoming a full-fledged chromosome
- each chromosome begins traveling toward opposite ends of the cell as kinetochore microtubles shorten
- cell elongates as nonkinetochore microtubules lengthen
- by end: both ends of cell have equivalent and complete collections of chromosomes
Term
Telophase
Definition
- 2 daughter nuclei form in cell
- nuclear envelopes arise from fragments of old nuclear envelope and parts of endomembrane system
- chromosomes become less condensed
- mitosis is now complete
Term
Cleavage furrow
Definition
forms during cytokinesis in animals. a shallows groove in cell surface near the old metaphase plate
Term
Nonkinetochore microtubules
Definition
attach to metaphase plate and elongate the cell during anaphase
Term
Cytokinesis in plant cells
Definition
vesicles from Golgi apparatus more to middle of cell and produce a cell plate, forming a membrane which eventually fuses with the cell wall producing two daughter cells.
Term
Binary fission
Definition
"division in half." asexual reproduction of single-celled eukaryotes. Includes mitosis.
Term
Orgin of replication
Definition
place on bacterial chromosomes where they begin to duplicate during binary fission
Term
Heredity
Definition
transmission of traits from one generation to the next
Term
Genes
Definition
hereditary units coded with information
Term
Sexual Reproduction
Definition
2 parents make an offspring. Each contribute n chromosomes making a total of 2n.
Term
Karyotype
Definition
ordered display of chromosomes starting with the longest ones
Term
Diploid Cell
Definition
cell with two sets of chromosomes
Term
Haploid Cell
Definition
Cell with 1 set of chromosomes
Term
Autosome
Definition
all chromosomes except sex chromosomes
Term
Alternation of Generations
Definition
In plants and algae. life cycle that includes a multicellular diploid sporophyte stage and a multicellular haploid gametophyte stage.
Term
Homologous chromosomes
Definition
individual chromosomes that were inherited from different parents
Term
Prophase I
Definition
- chromosomes condense and homologs loosely pair along their lengths, aligned by genes
- crossing over is completed in synapsis and ends mid-prophase
- each homologous pair has ore or more chiasmata
- Centrosomes movement, spindle formation and nuclear envelope breakdown begin
- microtubules from one pole attach to a kinetochore of one homologous chromosome. microtubules of other attaches to other homologous chromosome
Term
Crossing over
Definition
occurs in synapsis of meiosis I. genetic rearrangement between nonsister chromatids
Term
Chiasmata
Definition
In Meiosis I. point on chromosome whre crossing over has occured and the homologs are still associated due to cohesion between sister chromatids. forms a "X" shape
Term
Metaphase I
Definition
homologous chromosomes are arranged on metaphase plate with one chromosome in each pair facing each pole
- both chromatids of one homolog are attached to kinetochore microtubules from one pole. others attached to opposite pole
Term
Anaphase I
Definition
- Proteins responsible for sister chromatid cohesion breaks down, allowing homologs to separate
- Homologs move towards opposite poles
- Sister chromatid cohesion at centromere remains, causing chromatids to more as a unit to same pole
Term
Telophase I and Cytokinesis
Definition
- Each half of cell has a complete haploid set of replicated chromosomes with sister chromatids with crossed over sections
- Cytokinesis occurs simultaneously
- Cleavage furrow/cell plate forms
- NO REPLICATION
Term
Prophase II
Definition
- Spindle apparatus forms
- sister chromatids move towards metaphase II plate
Term
Metaphase II
Definition
- Chromosomes line up on metaphase plate
- Sister chromatids are NOT geneticall identical
- kinetochores of sister chromatids attach to microtubules of opposite poles
Term
Anaphase II
Definition
- proteins holding sister chromatids together at centromere breaks down
- Chromatids separate and move toward opposite poles as individual chromosomes
Term
Telophase II and Cytokinesis
Definition
- Nuclei form, chromosomes decondense, cytokinesis occurs
- Meiotic divison of 1 parent = 4 daughter cells, each with unique n (haploid) DNA sets
Term
Independent Assortment of Chromosomes
Definition
Each chromosome has a 50% chance of going to either pole, independent of all of the other chromosomes
Term
Recombinant chromosomes
Definition
individual chromosomes that carry genes derived from 2 different parents. due to crossing over
Term
Spermatogenesis
Definition
Meiosis in males produces 4 early spermatids with n DNA. Spermatids then differentiate into sperm.
Term
Oogenesis
Definition
Meiosis in females. Produces 1 large ova and 3 ploar bodies
Term
Oogenesis before birth
Definition
Meiosis I occurs but stops before division. Creates Primary oocyte
Term
Oogenesis at puberty
Definition
2nd meiotic division begins but stops at metaphase II. 1 per month. creates secondary oocyte
Term
Oogenesis after fertilization
Definition
Meiosis II resumes and completes forming a fertilized egg.
Term
Cori Cycle
Definition
metabolic pathway in which lactate produced by anaerobic gylcolysis in the muscles moves to the liver and is converted to glucose, which then returns to the muscles and is converted back to lactate.
Term
Nondisjunction
Definition
when members of a pair of homologous chromosomes do not more apart properly during meiosis I or sister chromatids fail to separate during meiosis II
Term
Gluconeogenesis
Definition
metabolic pathway that results in the generation of glucose from non-carbohydrate carbon substrates such as lactate, glycerol, and glucogenic amino acids.
Term
ATP generated by Triglyceride
Definition
129 ATP
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