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AP Psychology Cram
Important People, Theories and Terms for the AP Psych Exam
84
Psychology
Not Applicable
04/29/2017

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Term
Frances Galton
Definition
maintained that personality and ability depend almost entirely on genetic inheritance (human traits are inherited)
Term
Charles Darwin
Definition
theory of evolution, survival of the fittest-origin of the species
Term
William Wundt
Definition
introspection-psychology became the scientific study of conscious experience (rather than science); father of
modern or scientific psychology; structuralism was the approach and introspection was the methodology
Term
John Watson
Definition
founder of behaviorism; generalization; applied classical conditioning skills to advertising; most famous for Little
Albert experiment, where he first trained Albert to be afraid of rats and then to generalize his fear to all small, white
animals
Term
Alfred Adler
Definition
Neo-Freudian; believed that childhood social, not sexual, tensions are crucial for personality formation; believed that
people are primarily searching or self-esteem and achieving the ideal self
Term
Carl Jung
Definition
disciple of Freud who extended his theories; believed in a collective unconscious as well as a personal unconscious that is
aware of ancient archetypes which we inherit from our ancestors and we see in myths (young warrior, wise man of the
village, loving mother, etc.); coined the terms introversion and extroversion
Term
Gordon Allport
Definition
three levels of traits-- 1. cardinal trait- dominant trait that characterizes your life, 2. central trait- common to all
people, 3. secondary trait- surfaces in some situations and not in others
Term
Albert Ellis
Definition
father of Rational Emotive Therapy, which focuses on altering client’s patterns of irrational thinking to reduce
maladaptive behavior and emotion (like, “if I fail the AP exam my life will come to an end”)
Term
Albert Maslow
Definition
humanist psychologist who said we have a series of needs which must be met; you can’t achieve the top level, selfactualization,
unless the previous levels have been achieved; from bottom to top the levels are physiological needs, safety,
belonging, self-esteem, self-actualization; lower needs dominate and individual’s motivation as long as they are unsatisfied
Term
Carl Rogers
Definition
humanistic psychologist who believed in unconditional positive regard; people will naturally strive for self-actualization
and high self-esteem, unless society taints them; reflected back clients thoughts so that they developed a self-awareness or their feelings; client-centered therapy
Term
B.F. Skinner
Definition
operant conditioning-- techniques to manipulate the consequences of an organism’s behavior in order to observe the
effects of subsequent behavior; Skinner box; believed psychology was not scientific enough; wanted it to be believed
everyone is born tableau rosa (blank slate); NOT concerned with unconscious or cause, only behavior
Term
Ivan Pavlov
Definition
father of classical conditioning-- an unconditional stimulus naturally elicits a reflexive behavior called an
unconditional response, but with repeated pairings with a neutral stimulus, the neutral stimulus will elicit the response
Term
Noam Chomsky
Definition
believed there are an infinite number of sentences in a language and that humans have an inborn native ability to
develop language; words and concepts are learned but the brain is hardwired for grammar and language
Term
Jean Piaget
Definition
four-state theory of cognitive development-- sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational;
two basic processes (assimilation and accommodation) work in tandem to achieve cognitive growth
Term
Erik Erikson
Definition
people evolve through 8 states over the life span; each state is marked by psychological crisis that involves
confronting “who am I”
Term
Lawrence Kohlberg
Definition
his theory states that there are 3 levels of moral reasoning (pre-conventional, conventional, post-conventional)
and each level can be divided into 2 stages
Term
Carol Gilligan
Definition
maintained the Kohlberg’s work was developed only observing boys and overlooked potential differences between
the habitual moral judgment of men and women
Term
Hans Eysenck
Definition
personality is determined to a large extent by genes; used the terms extroversion and introversion
Term
S. Schacter
Definition
believed that to experience emotions one must be physically aroused and must then label the arousal
Term
Mary Cover Jones
Definition
systemic desensitization; maintained that fear could be unlearned; Little Peter experiment
Term
Benjamin Whorf
Definition
his hypothesis is that language determines the way we think
Term
Robert Sternberg
Definition
triarchic theory of intelligence- [1] academic problem-solving intelligence [2] practical intelligence [3]
creative intelligence
Term
Howard Gardner
Definition
theory of multiple intelligences
Term
Albert Bandura
Definition
observational learning- allows you to profit immediately from the mistakes and successes of others; his experiment
had adult models punching BoBo dolls and then observed children whom watched begin to exhibit many of the same
behaviors; social learning theory
Term
E.L. Thorndike
Definition
law of effect-the principle that behavior followed by favorable consequences becomes more likely and vice versa
Term
Alfred Binet
Definition
general I.Q. tests
Term
Lewis Terman
Definition
revised Binet’s I.Q. test and established norms for American children
Term
David Weschler
Definition
established an intelligence test especially for adults (Weschler Intelligence Test for Adults)
Term
Charles Spearman
Definition
found that specific mental talents were highly correlated; concluded that all cognitive abilities showed a
common core which he labeled “g” for general ability
Term
H. Rorschach
Definition
developed one of the first projective tests, the Inkblot Test; subject reads the inkblots and projects to the observer
aspects of their personality
Term
Philip Zimbardo
Definition
conducted the famous Stanford Prison Experiment; studied the power of social roles to influence peoples
behavior; proved people’s behavior depends to a large extent on the roles they are asked to play; experiment had to be
stopped because it got out of control
Term
Davis Rosenhan
Definition
conducted a hospital experiment to test the diagnosis that hospitals make on patients; wanted to see the impact of
behavior on being a patient; proved that once you are diagnosed with a disorder, your care would not be very good in a
mental hospital setting
Term
S.Asch
Definition
study of conformity; experiment had a subject unaware of his situation to test if he would conform if all the members of a group gave an obviously incorrect answer
Term
Stanley Milgram
Definition
conducted a study on obedience when he had a subject shock a patient to the extent that they would be seriously
injuring the patient
Term
Harry Harlow
Definition
studied theory of attachment in infant Rhesus monkeys; also experimented on the effects of social isolation in young
monkeys and observed that they become severely emotionally disturbed and never recover fully
Term
William Sheldon
Definition
theory that linked personality to physique on the grounds that both are governed by genetic endowment;
endomorphic (large), mesomorphic (average), ectomorphic (skinny)
Term
Sigmund Freud
Definition
psychoanalytical theory that focuses on the unconscious; id, ego, superego; believed innate drives for sex and
aggression are the primary motives for our behavior and personalities
Term
Karen Horney
Definition
criticized Freud; said that personality is continually molded by current fears and impulses rather than being
determined solely by childhood experiences; saw humans as craving love and social interaction to drive their needs
Term
Martin Seligman
Definition
learned helplessness is the giving up reaction that occurs from the experience that whatever you do you cannot
change your situation
Term
H. Ebbinghas
Definition
first to conduct scientific studies on memory and forgetting; learning curves;
Term
Hubel/ Wisel
Definition
did a study of the activities of neurons in the visual cortex
Term
Walter B. Cannon
Definition
believed that gastric activity in an empty stomach was the sole reason for hunger; did experiment by inserting
balloon in subjects stomach
Term
Ernst Weber
Definition
pioneered the first study on JND (just noticeable difference), which become Weber’s Law; the JND between stimuli is
a constant fraction of the intensity of the standard stimulus
Term
Elizabeth Kubler-Ross
Definition
theory proposes that the terminally ill pass through a sequence of 5 stages- [1]denial,
[2]anger/resentment, [3]bargaining, [4]depression, [5]acceptance
Term
Robert Zajonc
Definition
mere exposure effect; it is possible to have preferences without inferences and to feel without knowing why
Term
Henry Murray
Definition
stated that the need to achieve varied in strength in different people and influenced their tendency to approach
success and evaluate their own performances; devised the TAT (Thematic Appreciation Test) with Christina D. Morgan
Term
David McClelland
Definition
devised a way to measure H. Murray’s theory-“the need to achieve that varied in strength in different people
and influenced their tendency to approach success and evaluate their own performances”; credited with developing the
scoring system for the TAT’s use in assessing achievement motivation, not for the TAT itself
Term
Paul Ekman
Definition
theory that facial expressions are universal
Term
James Marcia
Definition
studied adolescent stage of Erikson; divided adolescent into four groups- foreclosed(having parents identity),
achieved (your own identity), diffused (not even searching, living day-to-day), moratorium (actively searching for identity)
Term
Social-Learning Theory
Definition
we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished
Term
Gender-Schema Theory
Definition
children learn from their cultures a concept of what it means to be male or female and that they adjust their behavior accordingly
Term
Signal Detection Theory
Definition
predicts how and when we detect the presences of a faint stimulus amid background stimulation
Term
Young-Helmholtz Trichromatic Theory
Definition
the retina contains three different color receptors--one most sensitive to red, one to green,
Trichromatic Theory one to blue--which when stimulated in a combination, can produce the perception of any color
Term
Opponent-Process Theory
Definition
opposing retinal processes enable color vision (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black)
Term
Frequency Theory
Definition
the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch
Term
Place Theory
Definition
links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea’s membrane is stimulated
Term
Gate-Control Theory
Definition
the spinal cord contains a neurological “gate” that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain
Term
Drive-Reduction Theory
Definition
the idea that psychological need creates an aroused tension state that motivates an organism to satisfy the needs
Term
James-Lange Theory
Definition
our experience of emotion is our awareness of our physiological responses to emotion-arousing stimuli
Term
Cannon-Bard Theory
Definition
an emotion-arousing stimulus simultaneously triggers physiological responses and the subjective experience of emotion
Term
Two-Factor Theory
Definition
Schachter’s theory that to experience emotion one must be physically aroused and cognitively label the arousal
Term
Attribution Theory
Definition
we tend to give a casual explanation for someone’s behavior, often by creating either the situation or the person’s disposition
Term
Cognitive-Dissonance Theory
Definition
we act to reduce the discomfort we feel when two of our thoughts are inconsistent
Term
Scapegoat Theory
Definition
prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame
Term
Social Exchange Theory
Definition
our social behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs
Term
Hypothesis
Definition
your prediction of how the experiment will come out, based upon a theory
Term
Population
Definition
all cases in a study; group from which samples are drawn. If you were studying teen driving for instance, teens would
be your population; the specific teens you studied would be your sample. Ideally, all the teens would have an equal chance
to be subjects to have a perfect random sample, but if the group you choose from is representative of the population,
(meaning same proportion of gender, ethnicity, age, etc) and all of those have an equal chance of being chosen, then you
have a random sample.
Term
Random Sample
Definition
the group you are doing the actual experiment on. They should all have had the same chance of being selected from the population. See above.
Term
Random Assignment
Definition
the way in which you assign members of the random sample to the control or experimental group. Again,
each member of the random sample should have an equal chance of being selected to each group. Try to keep all things
equal. Wait until everyone is there and randomly select them.
Term
Subject
Definition
the person you are doing an experiment on; a member of the random sample who has been randomly assigned.
Term
Operational Definition
Definition
a statement of the procedures used to define research variables. Spell out what you are comparing and how
you are going to measure and compare the dependent variable.
Term
Independent Variable
Definition
the experimental fact that is going to be manipulated or changed. You will compare the results of this fact
to a baseline or control group on which the variable was not done (called a between subjects design), or you may
compare the group in a before-and-after scenario, in which their original state or scores act as your baseline or control
group (within subject design). For instance, if you wanted to test the effects of watching the Simpsons on mood, your
population might be Americans. You would get a random sample for a representative population of Americans chosen
from phone books. Randomly assign those people to two groups, one who watches the Simpons(experimental group) and
one that doesn’t (control group). The independent variable would be watching the Simposns. Give each group a mood test
at a certain time before the independent variable is introduced. The results should be the same because they are a random
sample randomly assigned from the same population. Have the subject watch the Simpsons, and the control group not
watch the Simpsons. Re-administer the mood test and compare the resulting mood change (dependent variable). Or, in
this case, a within subjects design would be feasible and you could administer the mood test to the random sample over a
period of days to find out each members typical mood at 7:30 p.m. on a “typical day”. Then, allow them to watch the
Simpsons every day for a week and then measure their mood afterward and compare the results. The sample would then
serve as its own control group
Term
Experimental Group
Definition
the group being experimented on or acted upon by the independent variable. See above.
Term
Control Group
Definition
group compared to the experimental group to see if any change has occurred because of the independent variable
Term
Dependent Variable
Definition
behavior or mental process that is being tested; the behavior or mental process that changes because of the
introduction of the independent variable. The results of the experiment are compared to the behavior or mental process
before and after, or against the control group of the dependent variable.
Term
Results
Definition
the outcome in quantitive or measurable behavioral terms comparing the dependent variable before and after
Term
Discussion
Definition
your assessment of the experiment based on the results. Did it prove our hypothesis? Did you discover control
problems? What further study might be needed?
Term
Control of Possible Confounding Variables
Definition
steps you take to make sure your random samples are as identical as possible and that
the environment in which they are tested are as similar as possible.
Term
Confounding Variables
Definition
uncontrolled variables that affect the control group and experimental group affecting your results. It could
be things like time of day being different, using a male voice in one group and a female in another, and other distracting
Term
Double Blink as a Control for Experimenter Bias
Definition
if you’re asked to control for experimenter bias, you can’t go wrong by using a
double blind technique, wherein neither the experimenter nor the subject know who is in the control group or
experimental group so that they wont’ sway the results. The experimenter may know the intent of the study. To be
even purer, you could use a tester who doesn’t even know what he/she is testing for.
Term
Mean
Definition
the sum of a list of numbers, divided by the total number of numbers in the list
Term
Median
Definition
“middle value” of a list; the smallest number such that at least half the numbers in the list are no
greater than it. If the list has an odd number of entries, the median is the middle entry in the list after sorting the
list into increasing order. If the list has an even number of entries, the median is equal to the sum of the two
middle (after sorting) numbers divided by two.
Term
Mode
Definition
for lists, the mode is the most common (frequent) value. A list can have more than one mode. For histograms, a mode is a relative maximum (“bump”).
Term
Standard Deviation
Definition
tells how spread out numbers are from the average; calculated by taking the square root
of the arithmetic average of the squares of the deviations from the mean in a frequency distribution.
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