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AP Bio Chapters 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39
Flashcards for Mr. Richard's AP Biology for Chapters 26-30 and 35-39
272
Biology
11th Grade
02/24/2013

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Term
What is taxonomy?
Definition
the ordered division and naming of organisms
Term
What is a taxon?
Definition
a taxonomic unit at any level of hierarchy
Term
What is Polytomy?
Definition
where more than 2 organisms have the same common ancestor
Term
What are claudistics?
Definition
trying to put things into a clade
Term
What is a clade?
Definition
a group that shares characteristics from common ancestors
Term
What is Parsinomy?
Definition
building philogenetic trees based on common ancestors
Term
What are molecular clocks?
Definition
graphs using time and the number of mutations to graph a best fit line of the rate of mutations
Term
Where do archaea bacteria live?
Definition
in extreme conditions
Term
What are the 3 shapes of bacteria?
Definition
spherical, rod, and spiral
Term
What is phylogeny?
Definition
the evolutionary history of a species or group of related species
Term
What is the discipline of systematics?
Definition
it classifies organisms and determines their evolutionary relationships
Term
What is a scientific name called?
Definition
bionomial or genus species name
Term
What are the 8 levels of taxonomy?
Definition
Domain
Kingdom
Phylum
Class
Order
Family
Genus
Species
Term
What are phylogenetic trees?
Definition
a way to depict evolutionary relationships used by systematists
Term
What does each branch point in a phylogenetic tree represent?
Definition
the divergence of two species
Term
What are sister taxa?
Definition
groups that share an immediate common ancestor
Term
What is a rooted phylogenetic tree?
Definition
tree that includes a branch to represent the last common ancestor of all taxa in the tree
Term
What is analogy?
Definition
similarity due to convergent evolution
Term
What is homology?
Definition
similarity due to shared ancestry
Term
What is homoplasies?
Definition
analogous structures or molecular sequences that evolved independently
Term
What is molecular systematics?
Definition
method that uses DNA and other molecular data to determine evolutionary relationships
Term
What does monophletic mean?
Definition
it means that the clade consists of the ancestor species and all its descendents
Term
What is paraphyletic grouping?
Definition
consists of an ancestral species and some, but not all, of the descendents
Term
What is polyphyletic grouping?
Definition
consists of various species that lack a common ancestor
Term
What is shared ancestral character?
Definition
a character that originated in an ancestor of the taxon
Term
What is a shared derived character?
Definition
an evolutionary novelty unique to a particular clade
Term
What is an outgroup?
Definition
a species or group of species that is closely related to the ingroup
Term
What is the ingroup?
Definition
the various species being studied
Term
What is maximum parsimony?
Definition
assumes that the tree that requires the fewest evolutionary events is the most likely
Term
What is the principle of maximum likelihood?
Definition
states that, given certain rules about how DNA changes over time, a tree can be found that reflects the most likely sequence of evolutionary events
Term
What is phylogenetic brecketing?
Definition
allows us to predict features of an ancestor from features of its descendents
Term
What are orthologous genes?
Definition
genes that are found in a single copy in the genome and are homologous between species
Term
What are paralogous genes?
Definition
genes that result from gene duplication, so are found in more than one copy in the genome
Term
What is the neutral theory?
Definition
states that much evolutionary change in genes and proteins has no effect on fitness and therefore is not influenced by Darwinian selection
Term
What is horizontal gene transfer?
Definition
the movement of genes from one genome to another
Term
Explain gram-positive and gram-negative procedure.
Definition
scientists use the Gram stain, and gram positive which have simpler cell walls with more peptidoglycans will be stained while the gram negative which has more complex cell walls will not be stained
Term
What is a peptidoglycan?
Definition
a network of sugar polymers cross-linked by polypeptides
Term
What is a capsule?
Definition
a polysaccharide or protein layer that covers many prokaryotes
Term
What are fimbriae?
Definition
fibers that allow some prokaryotes to stick to their substrate or other individuals in a colony
Term
What are sex pili?
Definition
fibers that are longer than fimbriae and allow prokaryotes to exchange DNA
Term
What are some characteristics of prokaryotes?
Definition
no nucleus
no membranebound organelles
reproduce using binary fission
circular DNA
Term
What is taxis?
Definition
the ability for a bacteria to move toward or away from a certain stimuli
Term
What are plasmids?
Definition
smaller rings of DNA found in some bacteria
Term
What is the nucleoid region?
Definition
the place where the circular DNA of a bacteria cell is located(instead of the nucleus)
Term
What are endospores?
Definition
reproductive method used by prokaryotes; metabolically inactive, and can remain viable in harsh conditions for centuries
Term
What are the 3 factors that contribute to the genetic diversity of prokaryotes?
Definition
1. Rapid reproduction
2. Mutation
3. Genetic recombination
Term
What are three methods of reproduction in Prokaryotes?
Definition
1. Transformation
2. Transduction
3. Conjugation
Term
What is transformation in prokaryotic cells?
Definition
where the cell takes and incorporates foreign DNA from the surrounding environment
Term
What is Transduction in prokaryotic cells?
Definition
the movement of genes between bacteria by bacteriophages
Term
What is Conjugation in prokaryotic cells?
Definition
the process where genetic material is transferred between bacterial cells using a sex pili
Term
What is the F factor?
Definition
a piece of DNA required for the production of sex pili(is around 25 genes)
Term
Explain Conjugation.
Definition
When a cell has the F plasmid, it functions as the DNA donor, while cells without the F factor function as DNA recipients. The cells form the sex pili between them, and the F factors is transfered.
Term
What are R plasmids?
Definition
plasmids that carry genes for antibiotic resistance
Term
Where do Phototrophs get energy?
Definition
light
Term
Where do Chemotrophs get energy?
Definition
chemicals
Term
Where do Autotrophs get energy?
Definition
they need CO2 for their carbon
Term
Where do Heterotrophs need?
Definition
organic nutrient to make organic compounds
Term
What is nitrogen fixation?
Definition
where atmospheric nitrogen (N2) is converted to ammonia (NH3)
Term
What are heterocytes?
Definition
nitrogen-fixing cells found in cyanobacteria
Term
What are biofilms?
Definition
surface coating colonies
Term
What are extremophiles?
Definition
bacteria that live in extreme environments
Term
What are extreme halophiles?
Definition
bacteria that live in highly saline environments
Term
What are extreme thermophiles?
Definition
bacteria that thrive in very hot environments
Term
What are Methanogens?
Definition
bacteria that live in swamps and marshes and produce methane as a waste product
Term
What are some uses of prokaryotes?
Definition
Decomposers
Bioremediation
Recovery of metals from ores
Synthesis of vitamins
Production of antibiotics, hormones, and other products
Term
What is symbiosis?
Definition
the ecological relationship in which two species linve in close contact (larger host and smaller symbiont)
Term
What is mutualism?
Definition
where both symbiotic organisms benefit
Term
What is commensalism?
Definition
one organism benefits while neither harming not helping the other in any significant way
Term
What is parasitism?
Definition
an organism called a parasite harms but does not kill its host
Term
What are pathogens?
Definition
parasites that cause diseases
Term
What are exotoxins?
Definition
cause disease even if the prokaryotes that produce them are not present
Term
What are endotoxins?
Definition
released only when bacteria die and their cell walls break down
Term
What is bioremediation?
Definition
the use of organisms to remove pollutants from the environment
Term
What is a protist?
Definition
the kingdom of mostly unicellular eukaryotes
Term
Where do most protists live?
Definition
in water
Term
Why are protists important?
Definition
they provide food, symbiosis, and decomposition
Term
What kingdom are protists like?
Definition
animal
Plant
and Fungi
Term
What are the closest relatives to plants?
Definition
Charophytes
Term
What are Charophytes?
Definition
a type of green algae
Term
What are 2 things that plants provided that were necessary for the existance of other organisms?
Definition
Oxygen and organic food
Term
What are the 4 traits that land plants and charophytes only share?
Definition
1. Rose-shaped complexes for cellulose synthesis
2. Peroxisome enzymes
3. Structure of flagellated sperm
4. Formation of a phragmoplast
Term
What is a phragmoplast?
Definition
type of cell plate
Term
What are sporophytes?
Definition
diploid, produces a haploid spore, goes through meiosis
Term
What are gametophytes?
Definition
haploid, spore that has gone through mitosis, produces a gamete
Term
What is a sporangium?
Definition
reproductive structure in plants
Term
What are bryophytes?
Definition
nonvascular plants
Term
What is Archegonium?
Definition
females reproductive gametophyte
Term
What is the Anteridium?
Definition
male reproductive gametophyte
Term
What must seedless, nonvascular plants have to reproduce?
Definition
water
Term
What type of plant was thought to evolve first?
Definition
bryophytes
Term
What is a benefit of bryophytes?
Definition
they help conserve nitrogen
Term
What is lignin?
Definition
helps plants stand up
Term
What are three examples of bryophytes?
Definition
Liverworts, Hornworts, and Mosses
Term
What are tracheids?
Definition
dead cells found in the xylem; used dto carry water; conected to each other by pits
Term
What are 5 things that are common among all seed plants?
Definition
seeds
reduced gametophytes
heterospory
ovules
pollen
Term
What is a seed?`
Definition
consists of an embryo and nutrients surrounded by a protective coat
Term
What is the purpose of roots?
Definition
anchor the plant
absorb minerals and water
store organic nutrients
Term
What is a taproot?
Definition
one main vertical root
Term
What are lateral roots?
Definition
branching roots
Term
What are adventitious roots?
Definition
arise from the stems or leaves
Term
What two main types of plants have a fibrous root system?
Definition
seedless vascular and monocots
Term
What are root hairs?
Definition
tiny fibers coming off of the roots that absorb the water
Term
What type of root prevents erosion?
Definition
fibrous root sytem
Term
What are the three organs in a plant?
Definition
root, stem, and leaves
Term
What is the purpose of leaves?
Definition
carry out photosynthesis and make sugar
Term
What is the purpose of stems?
Definition
gives support and carries water and nutrients up and down
Term
According to evolutionists, what provided coal?
Definition
seedless vascular plants
Term
What is a node?
Definition
the points where leaves are attached
Term
What are internodes?
Definition
stem segments between the nodes
Term
What is an apical byd?
Definition
located near the shoot tip and causes plants to grow upward/downward
Term
What is an axillary bud?
Definition
structure that causes plants to grow outward
Term
What is apical dominance?
Definition
helps maintain dormancy in most nonapical buds
Term
What is the blade?
Definition
flatttened part of the leave
Term
What is the petiole?
Definition
joins the leaf to a node of the stem
Term
What are veins?
Definition
vascular tissue of leaves
Term
What types of veins do monocots have?
Definition
parallel
Term
What types of veins do eudicots have ?
Definition
branching
Term
What does simple leaf mean?
Definition
1 leaf per petiole
Term
What are compound leaves?
Definition
multiple leaves per petiole
Term
What are the types of tissue?
Definition
dermal, vascular, and ground
Term
What is dermal tissue?
Definition
covers the outside of the plant
Term
What is the vascular tissue?
Definition
transports water and sugar
Term
What is ground tissue?
Definition
tissue that is between dermal and vascular tissue
Term
What ist he ground tissue inside the vascular tissue?
Definition
pith
Term
What is the ground tissue outside the vascular tissue?
Definition
cortex
Term
What is perderm?
Definition
protective tissues that replace the epidermis in older regions of stems and roots
Term
What are trichomes?
Definition
hairs that protect plants form insects
Term
What is a stele?
Definition
the vascular tissue of a stem or root
Term
What are the 5 types of plant cells?
Definition
Parenchma
Collenchyma
Sclerenchyma
Xylem
Phloem
Term
What are Parenchyma cells?
Definition
the least specialized
thin flexible walls
found in buds
perform most metabolic functions
Term
What are Collenchyma cells?
Definition
thicker
uneven cell to support stem
flexible support
no secondary walls
Term
What are Sclerenchyma?
Definition
1.rigid cells that have very thick cell walls
2. strengthened with lignin
3. dead at functional maturity
Term
What are sieve tube elements?
Definition
have a sieve plate that connects cell and every one has a companion cell because it doesn't have its own nucleus or organelles
Term
What is the Plasmodesmata?
Definition
opening between cells to connect them
Term
What is Meristem?
Definition
region of plant in which the cells divide
Term
What are the 2 types of growth?
Definition
inderterminate
determinate
Term
What is indeterminate growth?
Definition
can grow throughout its life
Term
What is determinate growth?
Definition
cease to grow after a certain size
Term
What are apical meristems?
Definition
make the tree grow (primary growth)
Term
What are lateral meristems?
Definition
add thickness (secondary growth)
Term
What is vascular cambium?
Definition
where secondary growth takes place and produces xylem and phloem
Term
What is cork cambium?
Definition
produces cork; located outside the phloem
Term
What are lenticels?
Definition
openings in the periderm that allow oxygen to enter the phloem
Term
What is pattern formation?
Definition
the development of specific strucgtures in specific locations
Term
What is positional information?
Definition
determines where something is formed
Term
What is morphogenesis?
Definition
changes during development controlled by homeotic genes
Term
What are the 4 sections of the root?
Definition
Root cap
Zone of cell division
Zone of elongation
Zone of differentiation
Term
What is the root cap?
Definition
layer of dead cells to protect living cells
Term
What is polarity?
Definition
having structural or chemical differences at opposite endsof an organism
Term
What is the zone of cell division?
Definition
merestimatic parenchyma cells where the cells divide
Term
What is the zone of elongation?
Definition
newly formed cells begin to elongate
Term
What is the zone of differentiation?
Definition
cells mature, and some form root hairs
Term
What cells produce the cuticle?
Definition
epidermal cells
Term
Where are mesophyll cells located?
Definition
between the epidermis
Term
What are the 2 types of mesophyll cells?
Definition
palisade and spongy
Term
What is a palisade mesophyll?
Definition
dense and tightly compacted for photosynthesis
Term
What is a spongy mesophyll?
Definition
spaces in between for gas exchange
Term
What happens when the guard cells close the stoma?
Definition
photorespiration
Term
What affects light absorption?
Definition
leaf area index and leaf orientation
Term
What is the leaf area index?
Definition
the ratio of total leaf surface of a plant divided by the surface area of land on which it grows
Term
What is mycorrhizae?
Definition
the symbiotic relationship between roots and the hyphae of soil fungi
Term
What do most solutes pass through?
Definition
transport proteins embedded in the cell membrane
Term
What is the most important transport protein for active transport?
Definition
proton pump
Term
How do proton pumps work in plants?
Definition
they create a hydrogen ion gradient that is a form of potential energy that can be harnessed to do work
Term
What is membrane potential?
Definition
the difference in electrical charge(voltage) across a cell's plasma membrane due to the diferential distribution of ions
Term
What two things does membrane potential affect?
Definition
1. the activity of excitable cells
2. the transmembrane movement of all charged substances
Term
What is water potential?
Definition
potential to give up water; the cell that has more potential to give water to another cell
Term
What direction does water travel?
Definition
from a higher water potential to a lower water potential
Term
What is water potential measured in?
Definition
megapascals MPa
Term
What are the 2 things that affect water potential?
Definition
pressure and solute concentration
Term
What is another name for solute potential?
Definition
osmotic potential
Term
What is turgor pressure?
Definition
the pressure exerted by the plasma membrane against the cell wall, and the cell wall against the protoplast
Term
what is Plasmolyzis?
Definition
where the cell membrane shrinks from the cell wall because of a lack of turgor pressure
Term
What are aquaporins?
Definition
transport proteins in the cell membrane that allows the passage of water
Term
What is the symplastic movement?
Definition
the route of water through cytoplasm using plasmodesmata
Term
What is the apoplastic movement?
Definition
the route of water through cell walls that water takes to get to the top of the plant
Term
What are the 3 ways water can travel through a plant?
Definition
Transmembrane
Symplastic
Apoplasatic
Term
What is bulk flow?
Definition
the mass transport of molecules though the plant caused by pressure
Term
What is the endodermis?
Definition
the innermost layer of cells inthe root cortex
Term
What is the Casparian strip?
Definition
waxlike substance that surrounds the vascular tissue and protects the movement of molecules in and out the vascular tissue
Term
What is transpiration?
Definition
the evaporation of water from the plant's surface through the stoma
Term
What are circadian rhythms?
Definition
internal cyles of 24 hours
Term
What are xerophytes?
Definition
plants adapted to arid climates
Term
What is translocation?
Definition
the movement of sugar through the phloem
Term
What is xylem sap?
Definition
the bulk flow of water and minerals
Term
What is phloem sap?
Definition
aqueous solution that is highly concntrated with sugar
Term
What is a sugar source?
Definition
pumps sucrose into phloem and creates a lower water potential(producer of sugar)
Term
What is a sugar sink?
Definition
place wher the sugar is needed (sugar consumer)
Term
Explain how the sugar sink and source work.
Definition
When the sugar source pumps sucrose into the phloem, the water potential decreases. Then the water from the xylem goes into the phloem and creates a higher water potential which causes the sugar water to move down to the sugar sink which has a lower water potential
Term
What is cohesion and adhesion caused by?
Definition
hydrogen bonds
Term
What is systemic communication?
Definition
helps integrate functions of the whole plant
Term
What are phloem cells called?
Definition
sieve elements
Term
What are xylem cells called?
Definition
trachied elements
Term
What is topsoil?
Definition
made of sand, silt, clay with hummus in the mixture
Term
What is hummus?
Definition
the dead/decaying material in the soil that provides nutrients for plants
Term
What are macronutrients?
Definition
in plants: carbon, Oxygen, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Potassium, and Calcium
Term
What is phytoremediation?
Definition
the biological nondestructive technology that reclaims contaminated areas
Term
How do plants get the nutrients that it needs from the soil?
Definition
the anions in the soil attract the cations from the roots through the cation exchange which uses carbonic acid. Carbonic acid is a buffer so it can donate the hydrogen forming a bicarbonate ion. The hydrogen ion displaces other ions in the soil, so when it rains the displaced ions go into the plant with the water.
Term
What does it mean when the ions are leeched?
Definition
the ions are washed past the point of reach for the plants, often going into the water source/table
Term
What is rhizobacteria?
Definition
bacteria that help plants grow better
Term
What is the most common nutrient that leeches?
Definition
nitrogen
Term
What is most plant mass made from?
Definition
carbon dioxide
Term
What form of nitrogen must plants have in order to use it?
Definition
nitrate or amonium
Term
Explain the process of converting nitrogen into usable nitrates or amonium.
Definition
Bacteria converts N2 to ammonia (NH3) which is converted into ammonium (NH4+) which is then used or converted into nitrate (NO3-). If it is not used, there is bacteria that denitrifies the nitrogen releasing it back into the air
Term
What are legume plants?
Definition
plants that grow nodules that let bacteria live in and put nitrogen in the soil
Term
What is an epiphyte?
Definition
plant that lives on a host but doesn't harm it
Term
What is a photosythetic parasite?
Definition
harms host plant
Term
What are the 3 domains?
Definition
Archarea
Bacteria
Eukarya
Term
What is an angiosperm?
Definition
flowering plant
Term
Explain the life cycle of plants starting with the sporophyte.
Definition
1. a multicellular diploid sporophyte
2. goes through meiosis
3. produces spores unicellular& haploid
4. goes through mitosis
5. gametophyte(multicellular & haploid)
6. goes through mitosis
7. produces gamete unicellular &haploid
8. fertilization
9. makes unicellular, diploid zygote
10. goes through mitosis
11. produces sporophyte
Term
What part of the cycle is the flower?
Definition
sporophyte
Term
What is a sporangium?
Definition
reproductive structure of a plant
Term
If something is micro when referring to a plant's reproductive parts what is it?
Definition
male
Term
If something is mega when referring to a plant's reproductive parts what is it?
Definition
female
Term
How big is the male gametophyte?
Definition
2 cells
Term
What is pollen?
Definition
coat protecting male gametophyte
Term
Where are ovules?
Definition
inside the ovaries
Term
What are synergids?
Definition
mega cell that attracts the pollen tube
Term
What are polar nuclei?
Definition
mega cells that make the food for the zygote
Term
What becomes the female gametophyte?
Definition
ovule
Term
What becomes the fruit?
Definition
ovary
Term
Explain double fertilization.
Definition
When the pollen tube starts growing from one of the 2 cells in the male gametophyte, the sperm cell goes through mitosis. The synergids attract the pollen tube. The 1st sperm cell fertilizes the egg and the 2nd fertilizes the polar nuclei which fuse together forming the endosperm
Term
What is an incomplete flower?
Definition
flower that doesn't have one of the 4 parts of a complete flower
Term
What are the 4 parts of a complete flower?
Definition
carpel, stamen, petal, sepal
Term
What is an imperfect flower?
Definition
doesn't have both female and male parts
Term
What are the 8 cells in the female gametophytes?
Definition
2 synergids
1 egg
2 polar nuclei
3 others whose purpose is unknown
Term
What are dicots?
Definition
have 2 seed leaves
Term
What are Cotyledons?
Definition
the seed leaves of a dicot; are food storage; provide nutrients but do not go through much photosynthesis
Term
What is hypocotyl?
Definition
the middle of the embryo and becomes the stem in a dicot
Term
What does the radicle become?
Definition
the root
Term
What happens when water is added to a dormant seed?
Definition
it speeds up the metabolism
Term
What is a monocot?
Definition
only has one seed leaf
Term
What is imbibition?
Definition
absorbtion of water
Term
What comes first in a monocot?
Definition
the radicle
Term
What are the 3 ways that fruit is dispersed?
Definition
animals
wind
water
Term
What is another name for asexual reproduction in plants?
Definition
vegitative reproduction
Term
What does it mean if a plant is dioecious?
Definition
species that have staminate and carpellate flowers on separate plants
Term
What is self-incompatibility?
Definition
a plant's ability to reject its own pollen
Term
What do mononcots have instead of cotyledons?
Definition
coleoptiles
Term
What are coleoptiles?
Definition
the first leaf that comes up from a monocot seed
Term
What are transgenic plants?
Definition
plants that are genetically modified to express a gene from another organism
Term
What are biofuels?
Definition
plants raised to produce fuels
Term
What are some concerns for Genetically modified plants?
Definition
Allergens
effect nontarget organisms
inability to control the growth
Term
What are the three steps of cell signaling?
Definition
Reception
Transduction
Response
Term
What is etiolation?
Definition
when plants grow toward the light because they are responding to a lack of light
Term
What is deetiolation?
Definition
where stems stop elongating
Term
What are the 2 sensory structures?
Definition
1. Blue light photoreceptors
2. Phytochromes
Term
What are phytochromes?
Definition
red light receptors
Term
What is the process of light reception/cell signaling?
Definition
Light hits the phytochromes. If it is red light, it produces a messenger which activates specific protein kinase 1 which causes the transcription factor 1 to produce a response
Term
What is tropism?
Definition
any response resulting in the growth toward or away from a stimulus
Term
What are tropisms caused by?
Definition
hormones
Term
How does a cell respond to light on one side?
Definition
In order for the plant to grow toward the light, the cells on the opposite of the light respond to the hormone auxin that causes the cells to elongate
Term
What decreases auxin production?
Definition
light
Term
What are the 5 chemicals used in plants?
Definition
1. Auxin
2. Ethylene
3. Gibberellins
4. Abscisic Acid
5. Cytokinins
Term
What does auxin do?
Definition
it causes cell and stem elongation
Term
What does Ethylene do?
Definition
ripens fruit and causes leaves to fall off
Term
What do gibberellins do?
Definition
cause cell and stem elongation
Term
What does abscisic Acid do?
Definition
inhibits growth during drought stress, causes seed dormancy, and drought tolerance
Term
What do cytokinins do?
Definition
cause cell division
Term
What do kinases do?
Definition
phosphorlate
Term
What is an isomer?
Definition
two of the same molecule with different shapes
Term
What is far red light?
Definition
light between red light and infared light and is just barely visible
Term
What does far red light do?
Definition
causes the phytochrommes to go to the red isomer causing etiolation
Term
What does red light do?
Definition
causes the phytochromes to go to the far red isomer
Term
What is photoperiodism?
Definition
a physioogical response to the relative lengths of night and day
Term
What do long day plants need?
Definition
short periods of darkness
Term
What do short day plants need?
Definition
long periods of darkness
Term
What is gravitropism?
Definition
response to gravity
Term
What are statoliths?
Definition
granuals that settle at the bottom of the cell letting the cell know how to respond to gravity depending on the type of cell
Term
What is thigmomorphogenesis?
Definition
touch makes plants grow thicker instead of taller
Term
What is thigmotropism?
Definition
response to touch
Term
What does cold do?
Definition
decreases membrane fluidity
alters lipd composition of membranes
causes ice to form in a plant's cell walls
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