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anemias, blood clotting, hypertension and cholesterol
anemias, blood clotting and cholesterol
109
Pathology
Undergraduate 3
02/17/2013

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Term
anemia major symptoms
Definition
weakness, fatigue, tired, poor oxygen delivery
Term
two most common reasons for anemia
Definition
decrease in blood cells and inefficiency of blood cells to pick up oxygen
Term
where do all RBCs and WBCs grow?
Definition
they grow and mature in the center of the long bone where there is bone marrow before being released into the blood stream
Term
erythropoetin
Definition
a hormone released by the kidney tells bone marrow to produce more RBCs
Term
normal hematocrit
Definition
35-45%
Term
what occurs if hct is to high?
Definition
the platelets begin to bump into each other and form clots
Term
polycythemia vera
Definition
have to get blood cells removed because hct is too high
Term
pleura potential stem cells
Definition
stem cells with embryonic message able to convert into any type of cell responsible for populating the whole body with RBC, WBC, and platelets
Term
how does erythropoeitin work?
Definition
it exposes its cell surface receptor and the ligand attaches to the receptor belonging to erythropoitin. causes the release of messenger to inc, the production of RBC.
Term
normal life span of RBCs
Definition
120 days
Term
what happens when O2 oxidizes?
Definition
it becomes methhemoglobin, it is the signal for the spleen and the liver to destroy the cell.
Term
hemolytic anemia
Definition
the RBC dies before its lifetime expectancy. puts stress on stem cells who try to repopulate the body.
Term
hemoglobin
Definition
made up of 2 alpha and 2 beta chains. iron and porphyrin(heme). your body cannor make iron you must consume it. when the spleen and kidney takes old RBCs it recycles the iron but if you bleed such as in menstruation or a cut the body loses iron. which then dec. hemoglobin causing a deficiency in the amnt of O2 in RBC's
Term
which co-factors are needed to make hemoglobin?
Definition
B12. B12 is absorbed in the wall of the stomach. needs a carrier molecule called intrinsic factor which is made by parietal cells.
Term
B12 deficiency anemias are caused by what 2 reasons?
Definition
1. adequate intake of B12 but little intrinsic factor 2. inadequate intake of B12, intrinsic factor is perfectly fine.
Term
pernicious anemia
Definition
a lack of intrinsic factor
Term
B12 deficiency
Definition
inadequate B12 consumption
Term
aplastic anemia
Definition
plueropotential cells fails, results in a dec in RBC, WBC, Platelets = pancytopenia
Term
causes of aplastic anemia
Definition
exposure to therapeutic agents, also idiopathic
Term
treatment of aplastic anemia
Definition
give blood transfusion, the blood is fractioned into plasma, platelets, rbc, and wbcs the person will recieve w.e component they need
Term
when does HCT drop? and what do you do?
Definition
hct drops when large amounts of blood has been lost. Due to the body being quicker in restoring plasma and not RBC's. you must infuse w/ RBCs.
Term
androgens in relation to anemia
Definition
stimulate bone marrow like erythropoietin.
Term
sideroblastic anemia
Definition
not enough porfarin, which cannot make enough heme= dec hemoglobin.
Term
3 causes of sideroblastic anemia
Definition

1) genetic mutation, that cannot make porforin, can give pyroxidine which allows the making or porforin.

2) excessive alcohol intake can dec. porforin. pyroxidine does not work, must limit alcohol. 

3) idiopathic

Term
iron deficiency anemia
Definition
microcytic anemia, caused by the loss of to much iron. leads to symptoms of: koilonychia, glossitis, cheliosis (cracking of the lips)
Term
schillings test
Definition
test to see if it is a pernicious anemia or a B12 deficient anemia
Term
folic acid anemia
Definition
macrocytic anemia. if a pregnant mother does not consume enough folic acid, the mother may have children with anencephaly (an infant w. no brain) caused by chroni alcholism, chemotherapy.
Term
spherocytosis
Definition
a genetic disorder. due to the shape of the cells the RBC lacks the pumps that pump out water from the cells they cause the cell to inc in size with H2O and becomes a sphere shaped disk. it is a hemolytic anemia bc it is taken out of the cell before the 120 days. when it gets to the spleen it is trapped in the reticulo endothelial tissue.
Term
how to treat spherocytosis
Definition
they remove the spleen and it inc the lifespan of the cell.
Term
G6PD
Definition
genetic mutation. preserves hgb to protect RBC against oxidation. If you lack this enzyme the RBC will oxidize sooner and have a hemolytic anemia. need to avoid aspirin, antimalrial drugs, and sulfonimides.
Term
sickle cell
Definition
genetic mutation (recessive). when the cells sickle they are more likely to get caught in the spleen and develop and aplastic crisis. as the sickle cells try to pass the narrowing of the capillaries the cells get caught and clot against each other and O2 cannot get through may lead to ischmia of the muscle and a thrombotic crisis. person must stimulate the pleuropotential membrane to make more RBCs.
Term
how to treat sickle cell
Definition
must push fluids to inc orthostatic pressure which breaks up the clot. not RBC's bc it would make the congestion worse.
Term
genes of sickle cell
Definition

Hh=no sickle cell but you are a carrier

HH= no sickle no carrier

hh=sickle cell

Term
thalassemia AKA cooleys anemia
Definition
genetic mutation. affect adequate quantities of alpha chains OR adequate quantities of Beta chains. symptoms are the same: cells do not produce enough HGB. If you have the disease= thalassemia major. if you are a carrier of the disease thalassemia minor. a pregnant woman w. thalassemia minor is a highrisk pregnancy.
Term
how do you removes Fe from the body?
Definition
chelating agent, it binds to iron and is excreted regularly through the digestive tract.
Term

platelets 

1) how much in the body?

2) avg lifespan?

Definition

1) 150k-350k/mm3

2) 10 days

Term
stasis
Definition
blood stops flowing. can lead to the formation of clots. legs are at most risk can get DVT (deep vein thrombus).
Term
risk of clots w. atrial fibrilation
Definition
occurs due to electrical damages to the heart and causes the atrium to not pump fully but quiver. 15% of the blood stays n the atrium and the blood sits there and pools, this may form clots which can eventually be pushed into the circulation and cause an embolli travelling into the blood stream.
Term
chronic atrial fibrillation
Definition
must give them a constant dose of anticoagulant such as heparin (in the hospital) and coumadin (at home).
Term
vessel spasm
Definition
platelets are sticky when there is a break in the B.V. a nerve message is sent to the nearest B.V. to vasoconstrict. the platelets then stick to the jagged areas a platelet plug is formed.
Term
FIBRIN
Definition
platelets are water soluble, it allows for stopping of RBC spilling, but it cont to spill plasma, in order to stitch the spaces between the platelets with fibrin and the plug then becomes an actual clot.
Term
how is fibrin formed
Definition
clotting factor made by the liver are always formed and circulating the body in the inactive form. when factor 12 bumps into a broken B.V. it acts as a signal to convert 12 to 12a then activates 11 to 11a, then activates 8 to 8a, 8a activates 5 to 5a makes prothrombin to thrombin which converts fibrinogen to fibrin.
Term
extrinsic factors
Definition
are activated when blood is found on the outside of the B.V. both pathways need calcium to work if the person has hypocalcemia they will not be able to form clots.
Term
hemophiliacs
Definition
lack factor 8 throws off the intrinsic pathway but does not affect extrinsic branch. you are able to inject factor 8 into blood stream
Term
anticoagulants vs. fibrinoytics/thrombolytics
Definition

anticoagulants stop clots from forming (heparin and coumadin) it blocks the intrinsic pathway as an anti-coagulant.

 

fibrinolytics dissolve clots that have already formed. 

Term
clot retraction
Definition
as the fibrin strands contract it pulls platelets together along with the edges of the blood vessel.
Term
clot dissolution
Definition
plasmin dissolves blood clots. we have plasminogen in the body (the inactive form of plasmin) activated by several enzymes: if its from the plasma we have plasma activator, if its from the tissue we have tissue plasminogen activator, if its from the kidney we have urine activator, if its from the blood we have clot activator.
Term
streptococcal bacteria
Definition
releases streptokinase which acts as blood dissolving enzymes and causes the clots to be dissolved before time, and the wound has not fully healed yet and causes bleading. Must use an antibiotic in order to get rid of strep bacteria.
Term
disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC)
Definition
tirggered by: sepsis, bacteremia, massve trauma, burns, cancer, shock, lood transfusion reactions, pre-eclampsia, alter clotting mechanism and forms micro-emboli throughout the body and the micro-emboli circulate the body it may: 1. become larger and block circulation 2. they are useless clots and when you actually need to form a clot all of the clotting factors have been used.
Term

type of hemophilias

 

Definition

1) classic hemophilia- cannot produce factor VIII 80%

2) hemophilia B (x-mas disease)- cannot produce factor IX 15%

3) hemophilia C- cannot produce factor XI 5%

MEN ARE MORE LIKELY TO GET IT

Term
Uses of cholesterol
Definition
essential within normal limits for myelinating sheaths also for sex hormones and other steroids.
Term
saturated fats
Definition
carbon bonds where it is fully packed with hydrogen
Term
unsaturated fats
Definition
tend to be liquids at room temp. are not packed with hydrogen ions.
Term
how does the liver react to saturated and unsaturated fats?
Definition
when you eat saturated fats the liver tends to turn it into cholesterol. when you eat unsaturated fats the liver does no to make cholesterol (good thing! :) )
Term
transfatty acids
Definition
man made. partially hydrogenated found that they were more unhealthy than saturated fats b/c transfatty acid were converted to cholesterol much sooner than saturated fats. they also increase LDLs AND lower HDLs.
Term
cholesterol
Definition
is a lipid (fat, oil), must be transported in the blood stream to the cells by proteins. when it is taken to the cell the protein is called LDL's, when taken from the cell back to the liver to be metabolized it is called HDL's.
Term
which lipo protein is involved with atherogenesis?
Definition
LDL's
Term
ratio of HDL to LDL
Definition
usually they are proportionate. is better if u have more HDLS than LDLs.
Term
estrogen in relation to cholesterol
Definition
estrogen increases the evel of HDL's in the body when menopause kicks in they loose the cardiprotective effect. more women after menopause have alot of increased LDLs. estrogen also protects bone breakdown.
Term
LDL receptors
Definition
the more receptors you have the better because the cell can pull the cholesterol in, if you dont have enough receptors they end up in the arteries. 1 out of 250,000 ppl cannot produce any receptors at all.
Term
meds to lower cholesterol
Definition

1) cholestyramine: bile acid sequesterin. the drug binds to bile and cannot emulsify fat and causes the liver to use cholesterol to make more bile and then lower cholesterol in the blood stream. a major symptom was bloating alot and indigestion.

2) statins like lipitor work by going to the liver and inhibiting enzymes that make cholesterol. lowers LDLs and does not affect HDLs. a major symptom is muscle necrosis.

3) omega 3 fatty acids decreases LDLs, in nuts and fish. 

Term

process of atherosclerosis

(formation of fatty streaks) 

Definition
when there is an injury to the endothelial cells a monocyte comes and attaches to the wall of the B.V. now called macrophage it is able to put out LDL receptors, the LDLs attach to the macrophage and stay there, they bring in more and more cholesterol they become larter and larger they are renamed foam cells, and form a streak called a fatty streak. this is the beginning of atherosclerosis.
Term

process of atherosclerosis 

(formation of raised fibrous plaques)

Definition
platelets begin to be drawn to the area of fat and begin to release a growth factor and trickles down to smooth muscle and connective tissue and causes it to grow and form a cap over the foam cells. causes them to die and leaves just a pure amnt of cholesterol. the cap is called raised fibrous plaque. as the RFP grows it takes up more space and less blood can flow through. at 60% you loose the ability to vasodilate in the event that you are exerting yourself and need more O2 flow to the heart. your heart must then depend more on anaerobic respiration, which is not ideal. the body releases lactic acids and sends a message of pain to the brain and causes u to stop movement.
Term
myocardial infarction
Definition
occurs if tissue death occurs in the myocardium.
Term
atheroslerosis (plaque cracking)
Definition
if the plaque cracks a clot may form to stop bleading and can grow so fast it fills the lumen in seconds. give TPA to clear the B.V.
Term
complicated lesion
Definition
if you have a clot on top of the crack/plaque and causes the smooth muscle to spasm causing vasoconstriction. then the muscle spasms it causes unstable angina. if coronary artery is 60% occluded or you have symptoms of angina you have C.A.D
Term
stress test
Definition
measures how much the heart can take before it hurts ex: running on treadmill.
Term
angiogram
Definition
injects dye into coronary artery to see how much is occluded done when a stent is going to be inserted. we then have to worry about clots because it is not a human object.
Term
bypas surgery
Definition
use the saphenous vein and stitch the veins in the areas where there is an occlusion.
Term
what happens during systole? and what else is it refered as?
Definition
the blood is being pumped into the arteries and the ventricles contract. also refered as surged pressure
Term
what happens during diastole? and what else is it refered as?
Definition
the ventricles relax and the atria empties into the ventricles. also known as maintenance pressure.
Term
normal HTN range
Definition
<85
Term
high normal HTN range
Definition
85-89
Term
mild HTN
Definition
90-99
Term
moderate HTN
Definition
100-109
Term
severe HTN
Definition
110-119
Term
very severe HTN
Definition
120 and up
Term
which reading is an indicator of HTN
Definition
diastolic
Term
white collar HTN
Definition
the B.P. readings come up higher than usual due to nervousness. cannot make diagnosis of HTN w. just one reading if they are boarderline. must have atleast 3 readings on diff visits indicating HTN.
Term
what are the two types of HTN?
Definition
1) essential HTN or idiopathic
2) secondary HTN
Term
what makes BP?
Definition
BP= CO x TPR
Term
cardiac output
Definition
amnt of blood the heart pumps in a minute.
Term
how many liters of blood do you need at rest and during exercise to meet perfusion needs?
Definition
at rest: 5-7 Liters
during exercise: 10-12 Liters
Term
what makes cardiac output?
Definition
CO= SV x HR
Term
what is SV?
Definition
the amnt of blood pumped out everytime your heart contracts
Term
how can we increase SV?
Definition
by inc. the force of contraction. epinephrine controls the force by which the heart contracts.
Term
chronotropic
Definition
affect the amnt of times the heart contracts. has a (+) effect on epinephrine and (-) effect on digoxin.
Term
what is the normal heart rate?
Definition
60-100 b/m
Term
inotropic
Definition
affects the strength by which the heart contracts. has a (+) effect on epi and (+) effect of digoxin.
Term
which drugs have a (-) inotropic effect?
Definition
calcium channel blockers and beta blockers.
Term
what does the parasympathetic N.S. do?
Definition
it works to digest food, maintain homeostasis and works w. a hormone called ACH (acetylcholine)
Term
what does atropine do?
Definition
it is an anticholinergic that blocks salivary secretion during surgeries.
Term
what does the sympathetic N.S. do?
Definition
works with the fight or flight response. its main nuero trasmitter is epinephrine. epinephrine is made in the adrenal glands norepinephrine is made in the nerve endings.
Term
where do B1 and B2 receptors work?
Definition
B1 works in the heart and B2 works in the lungs.
Term
what kind of reaction would you want after a heart attack and what medication would you give?
Definition
give a beta blocker bc it has a (-) inotropic effect. therfore dec force of contraction and allowing the heart to rest.
Term
what would you do in relation to the heart with someone who has HTN?
Definition
u would dec CO in order to dec BP bc BP=CO x TPR if you lower CO you lower BP
Term
what happens when you release epinephrine in relation to BP?
Definition
the peripheral BV constricts and causes the TPR to go up and therefore inc. BP
Term
how can you inc. after load
Definition
by inc. TPR
Term
ejection fraction
Definition
the amount of blood being pushed forward at rest. it is the amnt of total blood in the heart divided by the amnt of blood that leaves the heart.
Term
essential HTN
Definition
idiopathic. risk factors include smoking, obesity, and excess alc consumption. occurs most common in adults
Term
secondary HTN
Definition
cause is known. organic causes, if fixed it will correct HTN. occurs most common in children
Term
what meds are given to HTN
Definition
beta blockers: dec S.V. and HR
vasodilators: dec TPR
calcium channel blockers: (-) chro and (-) inotropic effect.
ACE inhibitors
Term
how does the kidneys react to hypotension?
Definition
if the kidney senses a dec in BP due to a dec amnt of fluid going into the kidney it will release renin. which would then stimulate angiotensin I which is a powerful vasoconstrictor, ang 1 turns into ang II, it keeps water in and SV goes up which inc. BP
Term
how can you stop BP from going up in relation to angiotensin?
Definition
if u block enzymes which convert ang 1 to ang II you can dec overall BP.
Term
phachromocytoma
Definition
a tumor, develops in the adrenal gland and releases epinephrine. the tumor causes the inc. release of epinephrine which will inc BP really high. causes sweating, palpatations, and headaches.
Term
what does the medulla release?
Definition
epinephrine
Term
what does the cortex release?
Definition
aldosterone, cortisol and male and female sex hormones.
Term
how can you test for phachromocytoma?
Definition
epinephrine is broken down into a waste product called VMA (vandilmandelic acid) if this product is elevated they have the tumor. you then get a CT scan and remove tumor.
Term
preload
Definition
max amnt of blood in the ventricles. which is at the very end of diastole. if you inc preload you will inc the pressure of the ventricles.
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