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Anatomy- Final Exam
Semester 1
503
Anatomy
Undergraduate 2
08/05/2011

Additional Anatomy Flashcards

 


 

Cards

Term
Abdominopelvic Cavity
Definition
Has 2 parts- abdominal & pelvic cavities, which are not separated by a muscular or membrane wall
Term
Anatomy
Definition
The study of the structure of body parts and how they relate to each other.
Term
Cranial Cavity
Definition
In the skull, encases the brain
Term
Cytology
Definition
The study of cells in the body. (Ex: Pap smear)
Term
Distal
Definition
Farther from the origin of a body part or the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk. (ex: the knee is distal to the thigh)
Term
Embryology
Definition
A division of Developmental Anatomy, it concerns the developmental changes that occur before birth.
Term
Frontal Plane
Definition
Vertical plane that divides the body into anterior & posterior.
Term
Histology
Definition
The study of tissue in the body. (Ex: Nerve or muscle tissue)
Term
Homeostasis
Definition
The ability to maintain a stable internal environment in the face of constant changes inside & outside the body. All body systems contribute, but endocrine & nervous systems are the most important.
Term
Lateral
Definition
Away from the midline of the body; on the outer side of (ex: the arms are lateral to the chest)
Term
Lumbar
Definition
portion of the back between the thorax & pelvis
Term
Medial
Definition
Toward or at the midline of the body; on the outer side of (ex: the heart is medial to the arm)
Term
Mediastinum
Definition
contains the pericardial cavity
Term
Negative Feedback
Definition
Most of the homeostatic control mechanisms. The output shuts off the original effect of the stimulus or reduces its intensity. All negative feedback mechanisms have the same goal: preventing sudden severe changes within the body.
Term
Pelvic Cavity
Definition
lies in the bony pelvis and contains the urinary bladder, some reproductive organs and the rectum.
Term
Pericardial Cavity
Definition
inside the mediastinum, encloses the heart & remaining thoracic organs, i.e., esophogus, trachea, etc.
Term
Physiology
Definition
The study of how body parts function. Looks at how different organ systems of the body work and looks at such processes at the cellular and molecular level.
Term
Pleural Cavity
Definition
divided into lateral cavities (left & right), each enveloping a lung
Term
Positive Feedback
Definition
In P.F., the result or response enhances the original stimulus so that the response is accelerated. It's positive because the change that results proceeds in the same direction as the initial change, causing an increased deviation from the original value or range.
Term
Proximal
Definition
Closer to the origin of the body part or the point of a limb to the body trunk (ex: the elbow is proximal to the wrist)
Term
Sagittal Plane
Definition
Vertical; divides the body into left & right; when divided down the middle--> midsagittal; all other divisions--> parasagittal
Term
Spinal Cavity
Definition
runs within the bony vertebral column, encloses the spinal cord; continuous with the cranial cavity
Term
Thoracic Cavity
Definition
Surrounded by the ribs & muscles of the chest; subdivided into the pleural cavities & the mediastinum
Term
Transverse Plane
Definition
Horizontal; divides the body into superior & inferior (top & bottom); also called a cross section
Term
Visceral
Definition
pertaining to an internal organ of the body or the inner part of a structure
Term
Acid
Definition
A substance that releases hydrogen ions when in solution (compare with Base); a proton donor.
Term
Amino Acid
Definition
Organic compound containing nitrogen, carbon, hydrogen and oxygen; building block of protein
Term
ATP (adenosine triphosphate)
Definition
Organic molecule that stores and releases chemical energy for use in body cells.
Term
Base
Definition
A substance capable of binding with hydrogen ions; a proton acceptor.
Term
Buffer
Definition
Chemical substance or system that minimizes changes in pH by releasing or binding hydrogen ions.
Term
Carbohydrate
Definition
Organic compound composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen; includes starches, sugars, cellulose.
Term
Covalent Bond
Definition
Chemical bond created by electron sharing between atoms.
Term
Disaccharide
Definition
Literally, double sugar; e.g., sucrose, lactose
Term
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
Definition
A nucleic acid found in all living cells; it carries the organism's hereditary information.
Term
Electrolyte
Definition
Chemical substances, such as salts, acids and bases, that ionize and dissociate in water and are capable of conducting an electrical current.
Term
Enzyme
Definition
A protein that acts as a biological catalyst to speed up a chemical reaction.
Term
Fatty Acid
Definition
Linear chain of carbon and hydrogen atoms (hydrocarbon chains) with organic acid group at one end. A constituent of fat.
Term
Glycerol
Definition
A modified simple sugar (sugar alcohol); a building block of fats.
Term
Glycogen
Definition
Main carbohydrate stored in animal cells; a polysaccharide.
Term
Hydrogen
Definition
A component of all organic molecules. As an ion (proton) it influences the pH of body fluids.
Term
Hydrolysis
Definition
Process in which water is used to split a substance into smaller particles.
Term
Hydrophobic
Definition
Refers to molecules, or portions of molecules, that interact only with nonpolar molecules.
Term
Hydrophilic
Definition
Refers to molecules, or portions of molecules, that interact with water and charged particles.
Term
Ion
Definition
Atom with a negative or positive electric charge. Electrons can be transferred from one atom to another, and when this happens, the precise balance of + and - charges is lost so that charged particles called IONS are formed.
Term
Ionic Bond
Definition
Chemical bond formed by electron transfer between atoms.
Term
Isotope
Definition
Variations in elements. They have the same atomic numbers (#of protons & electrons), but differ in the number of neutrons they have.
Term
Lipid
Definition
Organic compound formed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen; examples are fats and cholesterol.
Term
Monosaccharide
Definition
Literally, one sugar; building block of carbohydrates; e.g., glucose.
Term
Nucleic Acid
Definition
Class of organic molecules that includes DNA & RNA.
Term
Peptide Bond
Definition
Bond joining the amine group of one amino acid to the acid carboxyl group of a second amino acid with the loss of a water molecule.
Term
Phospholipid
Definition
Modified lipid, contains phosphorous.
Term
Polysaccharide
Definition
Literally, many sugars, a polymer of linked monosaccharides; e.g., starch, glycogen.
Term
Protein
Definition
Complex substance containing carbon, oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen; composes 10-30% of cell mass.
Term
Radioisotope
Definition
Isotopes which are unstable and tend to break down more spontaneously into more stable forms.
Term
RNA (ribonucleic acid)
Definition
Nucleic acid that contains ibose and the bases A, G, C and U. Carries out DNA's instructions for protein synthesis.
Term
Dehydration Synthesis
Definition
Process by which a large molecule is synthesized by removing water and covalently bonding smaller molecules together.
Term
Regional Anatomy
Definition
Studying all of the body parts in a given region.
Term
Gross Anatomy
Definition
The study of structures large enough to be seen by the naked eye.
Term
Systematic Anatomy
Definition
The study of individual systems of the body (digestive or respiratory, for example)
Term
Principle of Complementarity of Structure and Function
Definition
We cannot separate anatomy and physiology because the function of a given organ reflects its structure. In other words, a given structure is "designed" to do a specific thing.
Term
Levels of Organization
Definition
Chemical--> Cellular--> Tissue--> Organ--> Systems--> Organismal
Term
Abdominal Cavity
Definition
contains the stomach, liver, intestines, spleen & other organs
Term
Serosa
Definition
the double layered membrane lining the ventral body cavity. The parietal serosa lines the cavity walls and is separated by a thin layer of fluid from the visceral serosa, which covers the body organs.
Term
Abdominopelvic Regions/Quadrants
Definition
Epigastric Region- above the umbilical region
Hypogastric region- beneath the umbilical region
Right & Left iliac or inguinal region- on each side of the hypogastic region
right & left lumbar region- on each side of the umbilical region
Hypochondriac region- on each side of the epigastric region
Term
Oral & Digestive Cavity
Definition
includes the mouth and the cavaties within the digestive organs
Term
Nasal Cavity
Definition
part of the respiratory system pathway
Term
Orbital Cavities
Definition
contains the eyes
Term
Middle Ear Cavities
Definition
contains the malleus, incus and stapes which transmit sound across the middle ear
Term
Synovial Cavities
Definition
enclosed within fibrous capsules and surround some of the joints of the body
Term
Matter
Definition
anything that has mass and occupies space
Term
Mass
Definition
the amount of matter an object contains
Term
Chemical Energy
Definition
refers to the energy stored in chemical bonds such as in our food. When the chemical bonds in food are broke, the energy released is used for bodily processes like movement. Much of this energy is captured in the high energy bonds of adenosine triphosphate which provides energy for all of our body processes.
Term
Electrical Energy
Definition
Refers to the movement of charged particles. The nervous system uses this energy in the form of nerve impulses to send messages from one part of the body to another.
Term
Mechanical Energy
Definition
Is involved in moving matter. The heart uses mechanical energy to pump blood throughout the body.
Term
Electromagnetic energy
Definition
travels in waves and includes forms of visible light, x-rays and redio waves. Light rays strike the retina in our eyes and set up nerve impulses resulting in vision.
Term
Atomic Number
Definition
Equal to the number of protons in the nucleus.
Term
Atomic Mass
Definition
The sum of the masses of protons and neutrons in the atom.
Term
Atomic weight
Definition
The weighted average of all mass numbers of all isotopes of an element.
Term
Chemical Bonds
Definition
When atoms combine with other atoms, they are held together by chemical bonds. It's an energy relationship between the electrons of the reacting atoms, and is made or broken in less than a trillionth of a second.
Term
Forms of Energy
Definition
Chemical- in the form of ATP is the most useful form of energy in living systems because it is used to run almost all functional processes.

Electrical- results from the movement of charged particles. Nervous system uses elctrical currents (nerve impulses) to transmit messages from one part of the body to another.

Mechanical- directly involved in moving matter. (heart pumping blood)

Radient/Electomagnetic- energy that travels in waves. Include visible light, infrared waves, radio waves, ultraviolet rays and x-rays. Used in vision.
Term
Chemical Reaction
Definition
occurs whenever chemical bonds are formed, rearranged or broken.
Chemical reactions exhibit one of 3 recognizable patterns: synthesis, decomposition or exchange.
Term
Synthesis (Combination) Reaction
Definition
When atoms or molecules combine to form a larger, more complex molecule. Always involves bond formation.
A + B -->AB
Synthesis is the basis of constructive, or ANABOLIC, activities in body cells, such as joining small molecules called amino acids into large protein molecules.
Term
Decomposition Reaction
Definition
Occurs when a molecule is broken down into smaller molecules or its constituent atoms:
AB--> A + B
Reverse synthesis reactions: Bonds are broken.
Decomposition reactions underlie all degradative, or CATABOLIC, processes in body cells.
Ex: Bonds of glycogen broken down to release simpler molecules of glucose sugar.
Term
Exchange (Displacement) Reaction
Definition
involve both synthesis and decomposition. Bonds are both made and broken. Parts of the reactant molecules change partners to produce different product molecules:
AB + C--> AC + B and AB + CD--> AD + CB
Occurs when ATP reacts with glucose and trans its end phosphate group to glucose, forming glucose-phosphate. At the same time, the ATP becomes ADP. This reaction occurs whenever glucose enters the body cell, trapping the glucose fuel molecule inside the cell.
Term
Oxidation-reduction Reaction
(Redox Reactions)
Definition
decomposition reactions in that they are the basis of all reactions in which food fuels are broken down for energy, but also a special type of exchange reaction because electrons are exchanged between reactants. The reactant losing the electrons is referred to as the electron donor adn is said to be OXIDIZED. The reactant taking up the transferred electons is called the electron acceptor and is said to become REDUCED.
Term
Reversibility
Definition
All chemical reactions are REVERSIBLE, that is, they can go from reactant to products or from products to reactants.
Term
Factors Influencing the Rate of Chemical Reactions
Definition
1. Temperature- Increase in temp increases the kinetic energy & therefore the force & speed of collision. Reaction is faster.
2. Particle Size- small atoms or molecules move faster than larger ones and therefore collide more. More collisions= Faster reaction.
3. Concentration- if the # of reactants is high, more collisions will occur= faster reaction
4. Catalysts- substances that speed up a reaction by lowering the activation energy. ex: enzymes
Term
Inorganic vs. Organic
Definition
Inorganic molecules are small & include H20, salts, acids & bases.
Organic molecules always have hydrogen and carbon & are important to living cells.
Term
Biochemistry
Definition
The study of chemical composition and reactions of living matter.
Term
Important Inorganic Compounds
Definition
1. Water
2. Salts
3. Acids & Bases
Term
Important Organic Compounds
Definition
1. Carbohydrates
2. Lipids
3. Proteins
4. Nucleic Acid (DNA)
5. Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)
6. Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)
Term
Skeleton
Definition
Bodies framework, constructed of two most supportive tissues found in body- cartilage and bone.
Term
Axial Skeleton
Definition
those bones that lie around the body's center of gravity
Term
Appendicular Skeleton
Definition
bones of the limbs or appendages
Term
Compact Bone
Definition
smooth and homogenous
Term
Spongy (cancellous) bone
Definition
composed of small traveculae (bars) of bone and lots of open space
Term
4 Groups of Bones
Definition
Long, short, flat and irregular
Term
Long bones
Definition
longer than they are wide and generally consisting of a shaft with heads at either end; composed predominantly of compact bone

humerus, radius, ulna, clavicle, metacarpals, phalanges, femur, tibia, fibula, metatarsals
Term
Short Bones
Definition
typically cubed shaped; contain more spongy bone than compact bone

carpals, tarsals (including talus), patella, calcaneus
Term
Flat bones
Definition
generally thin, with two waferlike layers of compact bone sandwiching a layer of spongy bone between them. Many flat bones are curved

scapula, sternum, ribs, skull
Term
Irregular bones
Definition
Bones that do not fall into one of the other categories.

vertebra, illium, ischium, pubis, bones of the pelvic girdle
Ex: Vertebrae
Term
Tuberosity
Definition
Large rounded projection; may be roughened
Term
Crest
Definition
Narrow ridge of bone; usually prominent
Term
Trochanter
Definition
Very large, blunt, irregularly shaped process. The only examples are on the femur.
large, irregularly shaped projection
Term
Line
Definition
Narrow ridge of bone; less prominent than a crest
Term
Tubercle
Definition
Small rounded projection or process
Term
Epicondyle
Definition
Raised area on or above a condule
Term
Spine
Definition
Sharp, slender, process/often pointed projection
Term
Process
Definition
Prominence or projection
Term
Projections that are sites of MUSCLE & LIGAMENT attachment
Definition
tuberosity, crest, trochanter, line, tubercle, epicondyle, spine, process
Term
Projections that help to FORM JOINTS
Definition
head, facet, condyle, ramus
Term
Head
Definition
Bony expansion carried on a narrow neck

structure supported on neck
Term
Facet
Definition
Smooth, nearly flat articular surface
Term
Condyle
Definition
Rounded articular projection
Term
Ramus
Definition
Armlike bar of bone
Term
DEPRESSIONS and OPENINGS allowing blood vessels and nerves to pass
Definition
meatus, fossa, groove, fissue, foramen
Term
Meatus
Definition
Canal-like passageway/structure
Term
Fossa
Definition
Shallow, basinlike depression, often serving as an articular surface
Term
Groove
Definition
furrow
Term
Fissure
Definition
Narrow, slitlike opening
Term
Foramen
Definition
Round or oval opening through a bone
Term
Diaphysis
Definition
shaft of the long bone; smooth surface, composed of compact bone
Term
Periosteum
Definition
fibrous membrane covering of the long bone; protects the bone; structure from which blood vessels & nerves enter bone; provides attachment site for tendons & ligaments; supplies osteoblasts for new bone
Term
Perforating (Sharpey's) Fibers
Definition
fibers of the periosteum that penetrate into the bone
Term
Osteoblasts
Definition
bone forming cells
Term
Osteoclasts
Definition
bone destroying cells
Term
Epiphysis
Definition
end of the long bone; composed of a thin layer of compact bone that encloses spongy bone
Term
Articular Cartilage
Definition
covers the epiphyseal surface in place of the periosteum; composed of glassy hyaline cartilage; prevents friction at joint surface
Term
Epiphyseal Plate
Definition
in young and growing animals; has a thin area of hyaline cartilage that provides for longitudinal growth of the bone during youth; once a bone has stopped growing, these areas are replaced with bone and appear as thing barely discernible remnants- the EPIPHYSEAL LINES.
Term
Yellow Marrow
Definition
adipose tissue found in adults
Term
Red Marrow
Definition
area involved in forming blood cells, found in marrow cavities of infant.

in adults, red marrow is confined to the interior of the epiphyses, where it occupies the spaces between the trabeculae of spongy bone.
Term
Endosteum
Definition
delicate lining of the shaft; also covers the trabeculae of spongy bone and lines the canals of compact bone; contains both osteoblasts & osteoclasts
Term
Chemical Composition of Bone
Definition
Organic components include cells (osteogenic, osteoblasts, osteocytes & osteoclasts) and osteoid. Osteoid makes up 1/3 of matrix & includes ground substance (proteoglycans & glycoproteins) and collagen fibers, both of which are made and secreted by osteoblasts = bone flexibility

inorganic calcium salts (hydroxyapatites) deposited in its ground substance= hardness of bone
Term
Structure of Compact Bone
Definition
central(Haversian) canal; osteocytes; lacunae; circumferential lamellae; insterstitial lamellae; osteon (Haversian system); canaliculi; perforating (Volkmann's) canals
Term
Osteon (Haversian System)
Definition
made up of central canal and all the concentric lamellae surrounding it
Term
Endochondral ossification in a developing long bone- Examining the Osteogenic Epiphyseal Plate
Definition
Looking at a slide from top to bottom:

Resting (quiescent) zone

Growth (proliferation) Zone- Cartilage cells undergo mitosis

Hypertrophi zone- Older cartilage cells enlarge.

Calcification zone- Matrix becomes calcified; cartilage cells die; matrix begins deteriorating

Ossification (osteogenic) zone- New bone formation is occuring
Term
Cartilages of the Skeleton
Definition
Articular, costal, laryngeal, tracheal, bronchial, nasal, invertebral discs

cartilage supporting the external ear
Term
Articular cartilages
Definition
cover the bone ends of movable joints
Term
Costal Cartilages
Definition
connect the ribs to the sternum
Term
Laryngeal Cartilages
Definition
largely construct the larynx
Term
Tracheal & Bronchial cartilages
Definition
reinforce other passageways of the respiratory system
Term
Nasal Cartilages
Definition
support the external nose
Term
Intervertebral discs
Definition
separate & cushion bones of the spine (vertebrae)
Term
Perichoncrium
Definition
dense connective tissue covering cartilage; acts like a girdle to resist distortion of the cartilage when the cartilage is subject to pressure; plays a role in cartilage growth & repair.
Term
3 Types of Catilage
Definition
hyaline, elastic & fibrocartilage
Term
Hyaline Cartilage
Definition
looks like frosted glass; most skeletal cartilages made of this; provides sturdy support with some resilience or "give"

Include: articular, costal, respiratory, larynx & nasal cartilages
Term
Elastic Cartilage
Definition
"hyaline cartilage with more elastic fibers"; much more flexible; tolerates repeated bending; cartilage of external ear & epiglottis
Term
Fibrocartilage
Definition
consists of rows of chondrocytes alternating with rows of thick collagen fibers; looks like a cartilage-dense regular connective tissue hybrid; has great tensile strength and can handle heavy compression; constructs the intervertebral discs & cartilages within the knee joint
Term
Epiphyseal face vs. Diaphyseal face

(Compare & contrast events occurring in these two places)
Definition
Epiphyseal Face: Cartilage cells are resting & relatively inactive. Right below, cartilage cells are rapidly reproducing.

Diaphyseal face: Chondrocytes are dying, the matrix is calcifying & the cartilage is being replaced by bone.
Term
Basic Components of Cartilage
Definition
cells called chondrocytes, encased in lacunae within an extracellular matrix containing a jellylike ground substance and fibers.
Term
Appositional Growth
Definition
"Growth from outside"- cartilage forming cells in the surrounding perichondrium secrete new matrix against the external face of the existing cartilage tissue.
Term
Interstitial Growth
Definition
"Growth from inside"- the lacunae-bound chondrocytes divide and secrete new matrix, expanding the cartilage from within.
Term
Hematapoiesis
Definition
blood cell formation which occurs in the marrow cavities of certain bones
Term
4 Major Cell Types Found in Bone
Definition
osteogenic, osteoblasts, osteocytes, osteoclasts
Term
Ossification/Osteogenisis
Definition
the process of bone formation
Term
Membrane Bone
Definition
bone developed from a fibrous membrane during intramembranous ossification
Term
Catilage/Endochondrial Bone
Definition
bone develped by replacing hyaline cartilage during endochondral ossification
Term
Wolff's Law
Definition
a bone grows or remodels in response to the demands placed on it.
Term
ethmoid bone
Definition
superior and medial nasal conchae formed from its projections
Term
Site of the mastoid process
Definition
temporal bone
Term
site of sella turcica
Definition
sphenoid bone
Term
site of cribriform plate
Definition
ethmoid bone
Term
4 bones containing the paranasal sinuses
Definition
frontal, ethmoid, sphenoid and maxilla
Term
nasal septmum
Definition
vomer (ethmoid bone)
Term
Bears an upward protrusion, the "cock's comb," or crista galli
Definition
ethmoid bone
Term
scapular region to which the clavicle connects
Definition
acromion
Term
shoulder girdle bone that articulates with and transmits forces to the bony thorax
Definition
clavicle
Term
3 bones that fuse to form the coxal bone
Definition
illium, ischium & pubis
Term
"sit down" bone of the coxal bone
Definition
ischium
Term
superiormost margin of the coxal bone
Definition
illiac crest
Term
deep socket in the coxal bone that receives the head of the thigh bone
Definition
acetabulum
Term
joint between axial skeleton & pelvic girdle
Definition
sacroiliac joint
Term
bones forming the knee joint
Definition
femur & tibia
Term
point where the patellar ligament attaches
Definition
tibial tuberosity
Term
bones forming the instep of the foot
Definition
metatarsals
Term
opening in the hop bone formed by the pubic and ishcial rami
Definition
obturator formane
Term
sites of muscle attachment on the proximal femur
Definition
gluteal tuberosity and great & lesser trachanter
Term
tarsal bone that articulates with the tibia
Definition
talus
Term
What is the function of the periosteum?
Definition
protects the bone & is the structure from which blood vessels & nerves enter bone; it provides attachment site for tendons & ligaments & supplies osteoblasts for new bone
Term
major submembranous site of osteoclasts
Definition
endosteum & periosteum
Term
Fibrous joint
Definition
essentially immovable joints; sutures are the most remembered examples; bone regions are united by fibrous connective tissue
Term
Cartilaginous Joint
Definition
typically allows a slight degree of movement; includes joints between the vertebral bodies and the pubic symphysis; characterized by cartilage connecting the bony portions
Term
Synovial Joint
Definition
all characterized by a fibrous articular capsule lined with a synovial membrane surrounding a joint cavity; all are freely movable or diarthrotic; include the hip, knee & elbow joints
Term
ligament
Definition
dense fibrous connective tissue; attaches bones together; reinforces joints
Term
Tendon
Definition
dense fibrous connective tissue attaching tendon to bone; reinforces the joint capsule as it spans a joint
Term
Articular cartilage
Definition
Hyaline cartilage; reduces friction where bones articulate
Term
Synovial Membrane
Definition
loose connective tissue; produces synovial fluid which decreases friction within the joint capsule
Term
Bursa
Definition
fluid-filled synovial sac which cushions the tendon where it crosses bone
Term
Pivot joints
Definition
synovial; uniaxial joints; between axis & atlas; between radius & ulna;
Term
Ball & Socket Joint
Definition
Synovial; shoulder; hip
Term
Plane (Gliding) Joint
Definition
Synovial; diarthrotic; articular processes(intervertebral); vertebrae (transverse processes or bodies) and ribs (vertebrocostal); acromion of scapula & clavicle (acromioclavicular); adjacent carpals (intercarpal); carpals & metacarpals (carpometarpal of digits 2-5); sacrum & coxal bone (sacroilliac); femur & patella (knee); tibia & fibula-proximally (tibiofibular); adjacent tarsals (intertarsal); tarsal & metatarsal (tarsometatarsal)
Term
Condyloid Joint
Definition
Synovial; occipital bone of skull & axis (Atlanto-occipital); radius & proximal carpals (wrist/radiocarpal); metacarpal & proximal phalanx (knuckle/metacarpophalangeal); metatarsal & proximal phalanx (metatarsophalangeal)
Term
Hinge
Definition
Synovial; ulna & radius (elbow); adjacent phalanges (fingers & toes); tibia & fibula w/talus (ankle)
Term
Catilaginous
Definition
articulating bone ends are connected by a plate of pad of cartilage
Term
Synchondroses
Definition
the bony portions are united by hyaline cartilage
Term
Symphyses
Definition
the bones are connected by a broad, flat disc of fibrocartilage
Term
Syndesmoses
Definition
the articulating bones are connected by short ligaments of dense fibrous tissue; the bones do not interlock
Term
Sprain
Definition
the ligaments reinforcing a joint are damaged by excessive stretching or are torn away from the bony attachment
Term
Dislocation
Definition
when bones are forced out of their normal position in the joint cavity
Term
Oh Once One Takes The Anatomy Final Vegas & a Good Vacation Appears Heavenly
Definition

I- Olfactory

II- Optic

III- Oculomotor

IV- Trochlear

V- Trigeminal

VI- Abducens

VII- Facial

VIII- Vestibulocochlear

IX- Glossopharyngeal

X- Vagus

XI- Accessory

XII- Hypoglossal

Term
Cranial Nerves
Definition

12 pairs primarily serving the head and neck; only one pair, the VAGUS NERVES, extends into the thoracic and abdominal cavities; all but first 2 (olfactory & optic) arise from the brain stem & pass through foramina in the base of the skull to reach their destination; most are mixed nerves; 3 pairs are strictly sensory in function (optic, olfactory & vestibulocochlear)

Term
Olfactory Nerve (I)
Definition

Origin & Course: Fibers arise from olfactory epithelium and run through cribriform plate of ethmoid bone to synapse in olfactory bulbs

 

Function: Purely sensory- carries afferent impulses associated with sense of smell.

 

Testing: Person is asked to sniff aromatic substances and identify.

Term
Optic Nerve (II)
Definition

Origin & Course: Fibers arise from retina of eye to form the optic nerve and pass through optic canal of orbit. Fibers partially cross over at the optic chiasma and continue on to the thalamus as the optic tracts. Final fibers of this pathway travel from the thalamus to the optic cortex as optic radiation.

 

Function: Purely sensory- carries afferent impulses associated with vision.

 

Testing: Vision & vision field are determined w/eye chart & by testing the point at which the person first sees an object (finger) moving into the visual plane. Fundus of eye viewed w/ opthalmoscope to detect papilledema (swelling of optic disc, or point at which optic nerve leaves the eye) and to observe the blood vessels.

Term
Oculomotor Nerve (III)
Definition

Origin & Course: Fibers emerge from dorsal midbrain and course ventrally to enter the orbit. They exit from skull via superior orbital fissure.


Function: Primarily motor- somatic motor fibers to inferior oblique and superior, inferior, and medial rectus muscles, which direct eyeball, and to levator palpebrae muscles of the superior eyelid; parasympathetic fibers to iris and smooth muscle controlling lens shape (reflex responses to varying light intensity and focusing of eye for near vision). Sensory (proprioceptor) afferents, which run from same four extrinisc eye muscles to brain.


Testing: Pupils are examined for size, shape, and equality. Pupillary reflex is tested w/penlight (pupils should constrict when illuminated). Convergence for near vision is tested, as is subject's ability to follow objects with the eyes.

Term
Trochlear (IV)
Definition

Origin & Course: Fibers emerge from midbrain and exit from skull via superior orbital fissure.


Function: Primarily motor- provides somatic motor fibers to superior oblique muscle (an extrinsic eye muscle).

 

Testing: Tested in common with cranial nerve III.

Term
Trigeminal (V)
Definition

Origin & Course: Fibers emerge from pons and form three divisions, which exit separately from skull: mandibular division through foramen ovale in sphenoid bone, and opthalmic division through superior orbital fissure of eye socket.


Function: Mixed- major sensory nerve of face; conducts sensory impulses from skin of face and anterior scalp, from mucosae of mouth & nose, and from surface of eyes; mandibular division also contains motor fibers that innervate muscles of mastication and muscles of floor of mouth.


Testing: Sensations of pain, touch, and temp are tested with safety pin and hot and cold objects. Corneal reflex tested with wisp of cotton. Motor branch assess by asking person to clench teeth, open mouth against resistance and move jaw side to side.

Term
Abducens (VI)
Definition

Origin & Course: Fibers leave inferior pons and exit from skull via superior orbital fissure to run to eye.


Function: Carries motor fibers to lateral rectus muscle of eye.


Testing: Tested in common with cranial nerve III.

Term
Facial (VII)
Definition

Origin & Course: Fibers leave pons and travel through temporal bone via internal acoustic meatus, exiting via stylomastoid foramen to reach the face.

 

Function: Mixed- supplies somatic motor fibers to muscles of facial expression and parasympathetic motor fibers to lacrimal and salivary glands; carries sensory fibers from taste receptors of anterior portion of tongue.


Testing: Anterior two-thirds of tongue is tested for ability to taste sweet, salty, sour and bitter substances. Symmetry of face is checked. Subject is asked to close eyes, smile, whistle, and so on. Tearing is assessed with ammonia fumes.

Term
Vestibulocochlear (VIII)
Definition

Origin & Course: Fibers run from inner-ear equilibrium and hearing apparatus, housed in temporal bone, through internal acoustic meatus to enter pons.

 

Function: Purely sensory- vestibular branch transmits impulses associated with sense of equilibrium from vestibular apparatus and semicircular canals; cochlear branc transmits impulses associated with hearing from cochlea.

 

Testing: Hearing is checked by air and bone conduction using a tuning fork.

Term
Glossopharyngeal (IX)
Definition

Origin & Course: Fibers emerge from medulla and leave skull via jugular foramen to run to throat.


Function: Mixed- somatic motor fibers serve pharyngeal muscles, and parasympathetic motro fibers serve salivary glands; sensory fibers carry impulses from pharynx, tonsils, posterior tongue (taste buds), and from chemoreceptors and pressure receptors of carotid artery.

 

Testing: A tongue depressor is used to check the position of the uvula. Gag and swallowing reflexes are checked. Subject is asked to speak and cough. Posterior third of tongue may be tested for taste.

Term
Vagus (X)
Definition

Origin & Course: Fibers emerge from medulla and pass through jugular foramen and descend through neck region into thorax and abdomen.


Function: Mixed- fibers carry somatic motor impulses to pharynx and larynx and sensory fibers from same structures; very large portion is composed of parasympathetic motor fibers, which supply heart and smooth muscles of abdominal visceral organs; transmits sensory impulses from viscera.


Testing: As for craneal nerve IX (IX & X are tested in common since they both innervate muscles of throat and mouth).

Term
Accessory (XI)
Definition

 

Origin & Course: Fibers arise from medulla and superior aspect of spinal cord and travel through jugular foramen to reach muscles of neck and back.

 

Function: Mixed (but primarily motor in function)- provides somatic motor fibers to sternocleidomastoid and trapezius muscles and to muscles of soft palate, pharynx, and larynx (spinal and medullary fibers respectively)


Testing: Sternocleidomastoid and trapezius muscles are checked for strength by asking a person to rotate head and shoulders against resistence.

Term
Hypoglossal (XII)
Definition

Origin & Course: Fibers arise from medulla and exit from skull via hypoglossal canal to travel to tongue.

 

Function: Mixed (but primarily motor in function)- carries somatic motor fibers to muscles of tongue.

 

Testing: Person is asked to protrude and retract tongue. Any deviations in position are noted.

Term
A-Band
Definition
the dark bands of a muscle fiber
Term
Aerobic
Definition
Oxygen required
Term
Anaerobic
Definition
Not requiring oxygen
Term
Actin
Definition
A contractile protein of a muscle.
Term
Cardiac Muscle
Definition
Specialized muscle of the heart; striated, involuntary
Term
Creatine Kinase
Definition
Enzyme that catalyaes the transfer of phosphate from creatine phosphate to ADP, forming creatine & ATP; important to muscle contraction.
Term
Diffuse Junction
Definition
The junction where the varicosities release neurotrnsmitters into a wide synaptic cleft in the general area of the smooth muscle cells.
Term
Excitation Contraction (E-C) Coupling
Definition
Sequence of events by which transmission of an action potential along the sarcolemma leads to the sliding of myofilaments.
Term
Fascia
Definition
Layers of fibrous tissue covering & separating muscle.
Term
H-Zone
Definition
The lighter midsection of the A-band.
Term
I-Band
Definition
The light bands of a muscle fiber.
Term
Insertion
Definition
Movable attachment of a muscle
Term
Isometric Contraction
Definition
Contraction in which the muscle does not shorten (the load is too heavy) but its internal tension increases.
Term
Isotonic contraction
Definition
Contraction in which muscle tension remains constant at a given joint angle & load, and the muscle shortens.
Term
Motor Unit
Definition
A motor neuron and all the muscle cells it stimulates.
Term
Muscle Fiber
Definition
A muscle cell
Term
Myofibril
Definition
Rodlike bundle of contractile filaments (myofilaments) found in muscle fibers (cells).
Term
Myglobin
Definition
Oxygen-binding pigment in muscle
Term
Myogram
Definition
A graphic recording of mechanical contractile activity produced by an apparatus that measures muscle contractions.
Term
Myosin
Definition
One of the principle contractile proteins found in a muscle.
Term
Multiunit Smooth Muscle
Definition
1. Consists of muscle fibers that are structurally independent of one another.
2. Richly supplied with nerve endings, each of which forms a motor unit with a number of muscle fibers.
3. Responds to neural stimulation with graded contractions that involve recruitment.
Term
Neuromuscular Junction
Definition
Region where a motor neuron comes into close contact with a skeletal muscle cell.
Term
Origin
Definition
Attachment of a muscle that remains relatively fixed during muscular contraction.
Term
Prime Mover
Definition
Muscle that bears the major responsibility for effecting a particular movement; an agonist.
Term
Sarcomere
Definition
The smalles contractile unit of a muscle; extends from one Z disc to another
Term
Sarcoplasmic Reticulum
Definition
Specialized endoplasmic reticulum of muscle cells.
Term
Single Unit Smooth Muscle
Definition
1. Are arranged in opposing (longitudinal & circular) sheets.
2. Are innervated by ANS varicosities and often exhibit rhythmic spontaneous action potentials
3. Are electrically coupled by gap junctions & so contract as a unit (recruitment is not an option)
4. Respond to various chemical stimuli.
Term
Skeletal muscle
Definition
Muscle composed of cylindrical multinucleate cells with obvious striations; the muscle(s) attached to the body's skeleton; voluntary
Term
Smooth muscle
Definition
Spindle-shaped cells with one centrally located nucleus and no externally visible striations. Found mainly in the walls of hollow organs.
Term
Synergist
Definition
Muscle that aids the action of a prime mover by effecting the same movement or stabilizing joints across which the prime mover acts, preventing undesirable movements.
Term
Tendon
Definition
cord of dense fibrous tissue attaching muscle to bone
Term
Tetanus
Definition
a smooth, sustained muscle contraction resulting from high-frequency stimulation
Term
Triad
Definition
successive groupings of the 3 membranous structures (Terminal cisterna, T Tubule, Terminal cisterna)
Term
Masseter
Definition
Origin: Zygomatic arch & Maxilla

Insertion: Medial Upper Tibial Shaft

Action(s): Extends thigh; flexes knee; medially rotates leg
Term
Sternocleidomastoid
Definition
Origin: Manubrium of Sternum & Medial part of Clavicles

Insertion: Mastoid Process of Temporal & Superior Nuchal Line of Occipital Bone

Action: Flexes neck forward when working in pair; rotates head toward shoulder when working individually
Term
Pectoralis Major
Definition
Origin: Clavicle, Sternum, Cartilage of Ribs 1-6

Insertion: By Tendon into Intertubercular Grove of Humerus

Action: Prime mover of arm flexion; adducts, medially rotates arm
Term
External Intercostals
Definition
Origin: Inferior border of ribs above

Insertion: Superior border of ribs below

Action: Pulss ribs toward one another to elevate rib cage; aids in inspiration
Term
Internal Intercostals
Definition
Origin: Superior border of ribs below

Insertion: Inferior border of ribs above

Action: Draws ribs together to depress rib cage; aids in forced expiration; antagonistic to exterior intercostals
Term
Trapezius
Definition
Origin: Occipital bone; spines of C7 & all thoracic vertebrae

Insertion: Acromion & spinous process of scapula

Action: Extends head; raises, rotates & adducts scapula & stabilizes it
Term
Serratus Anterior
Definition
Origin: Lateral part of ribs 1-8

Insertion: Vertebral border of anterior surface of scapula

Action:Moves scapula forward toward chest; rotates scapula; abduction & raising of arm
Term
Latissimus Dorsi
Definition
Origin: Spinous processes of lower 6 thoracic vertebrae, lumbar vertebrae & illiac crest

Insertion: Intertubucular grove of humerus

Action: Prime mover of arm extension; adducts & medially rotates arm; depresses scapula; pulls arm downward in power stroke
Term
Rectus Abdominus
Definition
Origin: Pubic crest & symphisis

Insertion: Xiphoid process & costal cartilages of ribs 5-7

Action: Flexes & rotates vertebral column; increases abdominal pressure; fixes & depresses ribs; stabilizes pelvis
Term
Diaphragm
Definition
Origin: Inferior border of ribs & sternum; cartilages of last 6 ribs & lumbar vertebrae

Insertion: Central tendon of thoracic cage

Action: Prime mover of inspiration; increases intra-abdominal pressure
Term
Rotator Cuff Muscles
Definition
subscapularis, supraspinatus, infraspinatus, teres minor
Term
Subscapularis
Definition
Origin: Subscapular fossa of scapula

Insertion: lesser tubercle of humerus

Action: medial rotation of humerus at shoulder joint
Term
Supraspinatus
Definition
Origin: Supraspinous fossa of scapula

Insertion: greater tubercle of humerus

Action: abduction of shoulder joint
Term
Infraspinatus
Definition
Origin: infraspinous fossa of scapula

Insertion: greater tubercle of humerus

Action: lateral rotation of humerus at shoulder joint
Term
Teres minor
Definition
Origin: posterior surface of the lateral margin of the scapula

Insertion: greater tubercle of humerus

Action: lateral rotation of humerus at shoulder joint
Term
Biceps Brachii (long head)
Definition
Origin: Supraglenoid tubercle of scapula

Insertion: radial tuberosity

Action: flexion of elbow & supination of forearm
Term
Biceps Brachii (Short Head)
Definition
Origin: Coracoid process of scapula

Insertion: radial tuberosity

Action: flexion of elbow & supination of forearm
Term
Deltoid
Definition
Origin: lateral 1/3 of clavicle; acromium & spine scapula

Insertion: deltoid tuberosity

Action: whole muscle acts as prime mover in humerus abduction; specific fibers aid in flexion, extension & rotation of humerus
Term
Brachialis
Definition
Origin: distal portion of anterior humerus

Insertion: coronoid process of ulna

Action: major flexor of forearm
Term
Triceps Brachii (long head)
Definition
Origin: Inferior margin of glenoid cavity

Insertion: Olecranon process of ulna

Action: powerful forearm extensor; antagonist of forearm flexors
Term
Triceps Brachii (Lateral Head)
Definition
Origin: Posterior humerus

Insertion: Olecranon process of ulna

Action: powerful forearm extensor; antagonist of forearm flexors
Term
Triceps Brachii (Medial Head)
Definition
Origin: Distal radial groove on posterior humerus

Insertion: Olecranon process of ulna

Action: powerful forearm extensor; antagonist of forearm flexors
Term
Gluteus Maximus
Definition
Origin: dorsal ilium, sacrum & coccyx

Insertion: gluteal tuberosity of femur & illotibial tract (majority)

Action: Powerful thigh extensor; antagonist of iliopsoas; laterally rotates & abducts thigh
Term
Gluteus Medius
Definition
Origin: upper lateral surface of ilium

Insertion: greater trachanter of femur

Action: abducts & medially rotates thigh; steadies pelvis
Term
Sartorius
Definition
Origin: anterior superior illiac spine

Insertion: aponeurosis into medial aspect of proximal tibia

Action: flexes, abducts & laterally rotates thigh; flexes knee
Term
Tensor Fasciar Latae
Definition
Origin: anterior iliac crest & anterior superior iliac spine

Insertion: iliotibial tract

Action: flexes, abducts & medially rotates thigh
Term
Quadiceps Femoris Muscles
Definition
vastus medialis
vastus intermedius
vastus lateralis
Term
Vastus Medialis
Definition
Origin: linea aspera & intertrachateric line

Insertion: tibial tuberosity & patella

Action: extends knee
Term
Vastus Intermedius
Definition
Origin: anterior & lateral surface of femur

Insertion: tibial tuberosity & patella

Action: extends knee
Term
Vastus Lateralis
Definition
Origin: greater trochanter, intertrochanteric line & linea aspera

Insertion: tibial tuberosity & patella

Action: extends & stabilizes knee
Term
Rectus Femoris
Definition
Origin: anterior inferior iliac spine & superior margin of acetabelum

Insertion: tibial tuberosity & patella

Action: extends knee & flexes thigh at hip
Term
Gracilis
Definition
Origin: inferior ramus & body pubis

Insertion: medial surface tibia below the medial condyle

Action: Adducts thigh; flexes & medially rotates leg
Term
Adductor Magnus
Definition
Origin: ischial & pubic rami & ischial tuberosity

Insertion: linea aspera & adductor tubercle femur

Action: adduct & medially rotate & flex thigh
Term
Tibialis Anterior
Definition
Origin: lateral condyle & upper 2/3 of tibia

Insertion: by tendon into inferior surface of first cuneiform & metatarsal 1

Action: prime mover of dorsiflexion; inverts foot
Term
Hamstring Muscles
Definition
semitendinosus
semimebranosus
biceps femoris
Term
Semitendinous
Definition
Origin: ishcial tuberosity

Insertion: medial upper tibial shaft

Action: extends thigh; flexes knee; medially rotates leg
Term
Semimebranosus
Definition
Origin: ischial tuberosity

Insertion: medial condyle of tibia & lateral condule of femur

Action: extends thigh; flexes knee; medially rotates leg
Term
Biceps Femoris
Definition
Origin: ishcial tuberosity

Insertion: by tendon into head of fibula

Action: extends thigh; flexes knee; laterally rotates leg
Term
Gastrocnemius (middle head)
Definition
Origin: medial condyle of femur

Insertion: calcaneal tendon to calcaneus

Action: Planter flexes foot when knee is extended; crosses knee joint, thus can flex knee
Term
Gastrocnemius (Lateral Head)
Definition
Origin:lateral condyle of femur

Insertion: calcaneal tendon to calcaneus

Action: Planter flexes foot when knee is extended; crosses knee joint, thus can flex knee
Term
Soleus
Definition
Origin: Proximal part of tibia & fibula

Insertion: Calcaneal tendon to calcaneus

Action: Planter flexion
Term
Thalamus
Definition
Afferent impulses from all senses and all parts of the body converge here and synapse with at least one of its nuclei.
Term
Basal Nuclei or Basal Ganglia
Definition
caudate nucleus, putamen & globus pallidus

putamen & globus pallidus form a lens-shaped mass, then lentiform nucleus
Term
Ventral Horn of Gray Matter (in spinal cord)
Definition
Site of efferent soma
Term
Dorsal Horn (spinal cord)
Definition
site of axons and afferent neurons
Term
Dorsal Root Ganglia
Definition
site of sensory soma
Term
Dorsal Horn
Definition
horn usually containing interneurons
Term
Gray Commissure
Definition
site containing the central canal
Term
Ventral Horn
Definition
Multipolar neurons are common here
Term
Temporal
Definition
auditory area found here
Term
Parietal
Definition
primary sensory cortex
Term
Frontal
Definition
somatic motor cortex
Term
Frontal
Definition
motor speech cortex
Term
Frontal
Definition
premotor area
Term
Occipital
Definition
visual area
Term
Temporal
Definition
language/speech comprehension area
Term
Parietal
Definition
taste (gustatory) area
Term
Frontal
Definition
seat of intelligence, abstract reasoning
Term
Thalamus
Definition
A major relay station for sensory information ascending to primary sensory areas of the cerebral cortex. Contains many specialized nuclei.
Term
Prefrontal Area
Definition
This brain area associates experiences necessary for the production of abstract ideas, judgment, and conscience.
Term
Primary Motor Cortex
Definition
The axons from this area form the major pyramidal tracts.
Term
Hypothalamus
Definition
This area is the main visceral control center of the body.
Term
Stage 4
Definition
The stage when vital signs (blodd pressure, heart rate, and body temperature) reach their lowest normal levels.
Term
REM
Definition
Indicated by movement of the eyes under the lids; dreaming occurs
Term
Stage 3
Definition
Theta and delta waves begin to appear
Term
Stage 1
Definition
Very easy to awaken; EEG shows alpha waves; may even deny being asleep
Term
Stage 2
Definition
Typified by sleep spindles
Term
REM
Definition
Begins about 90 minutes after the onset of sleep.
Term
REM
Definition
Necessary for emotional health; may be neural "debugging."
Term
Nonspecific ascending pathways
Definition
are involved int eh emotional aspects of perception.
Term
Hypothalamus
Definition
the superchiasmatic nucleus is found here
Term
Pons
Definition
Nuclei of CN V, VI, and VII are found here
Term
Cerebellar White Matter
Definition
Arbor vitae refers to this
Term
Brain stem
Definition
midbrain, medulla & pons
Term
Temporal Lobe
Definition
primary auditory cortex found here
Term
Spinocerebellar tracts
Definition
carry proprioceptive inputs to the cerebellum
Term
Spinal cord
Definition
gray matter on inside, white matter on outside and a ventral motor root
Term
Medulla
Definition
contains vital centers for the control of heart rate, respiration, and blood pressure
Term
Dorsal Root Ganglia of the Spinal Cord
Definition
Cell bodies of the sensory neurons of the spinal nerves are located here.
Term
Longitudinal Fissure
Definition
Fissure separating the cerebral hemispheres
Term
Sulcus
Definition
A shallow groove on the surface of the cortex.
Term
Cerebral Spinal Fluid
Definition
is secreted mostly by the ependymal cells lining the brain ventricles
Term
Spinal cord
Definition
If the posterior portion of the neural tube failed to develop properly, this part would be affected.
Term
Central Sulcus
Definition
separates the frontal from the parietal lobe
Term
Lateral Spinothalmic
Definition
Neural tracts that convey life-saving information to the brain concerning burning pain
Term
Fasciculus cuneatus and Fasciculus gracillis (dorsal white column)
Definition
transmit sensory impulses from general sensory receptors of skin & proprioceptors, which are interpreted as discriminative touch, pressure and "body sense" in opposite somatosensory cortex.
Term
Ventral Spinothalamic
Definition
Transmits impulses concerned with crude touch and pressure to opposite side of brain for interpretation by somatosensory cortex.
Term
Dorsal & Ventral spinocerebellar
Definition
Transmits impulses from trunk & lower limb proprioceptors on one side of body to same side of cerebellum for subconscious proprioception.
Term
Cell bodies, dendrites, unmyelinated axons
Definition
found in the cerebral cortex
Term
Hypothalamus
Definition
thermostat of the body, regulates temperature
Term
Myelinated & Unmyelinated Nerve Fibers
Definition
found in white matter of the spinal cord
Term
Rubrospinal
Definition
a lateral tract in the spinal cord
Term
Vestibulospinal tract
Definition
an anterior spinal tract
Term
tectospinal tract
Definition
an anterior spinal tract
Term
Paraplegia
Definition
accidental transected spinal cord between T1 & L1 results in...
Term
upper motor neurons
Definition
spastic paralysis suggests involvement of the ____________?
Term
Gyri
Definition
Ridges of tissue on the surface of the cerebral hemispheres
Term
Lateral Sulcus
Definition
the frontal lobe is separated from the temporal lobe by this
Term
structurally distinct cortical areas
Definition
Brodmann's numbering refers to this
Term
pyramidal and corticospinal
Definition
2 terms for the massive motor tracts serving voluntary movement
Term
corresponding areas of the 2 hemispheres
Definition
The function of commissures is to connect __________________?
Term
metabolic waste such as urea
Definition
The blood-brain barrier is effective against__________________?
Term
Substantia Nigra
Definition
Which of the following is NOT part of the basal nuclei?

putamen, lentiform nucleus, globus pallidus, substantia nigra
Term
caudate nucleus
Definition
All of the following are structures of the limbic system except the ___________.

hippocampus, cingulate gyrus, caudate nucleus, amygdaloid nucleus
Term
third ventricle
Definition
Which of the following is NOT a midbrain structure?

third ventricle, cerebral peduncles, corpora qudrigemina, red nucleus
Term
Consolidation
Definition
the process of linking new facts with old facts already stored in the memory bank
Term
Electroencephalogram
Definition
indicates a normal frequency range of 1-30 Hz
Term
Reticular formation
Definition
the brain area that regulates activities that control the state of wakefulness or alertness of the cerebral cortex
Term
red blood cells
Definition
Which of the following would you NOT find in normal cerbralspinal fluid?

protein, potassium, red blood cells, glucose
Term
REM sleep
Definition
temporary skeletal muscle paralysis, except for the extrinsic eye muscles
Term
loss of proprioception
Definition
Injury to the hypothalamus may result in all of the following EXCEPT____________.

pathalogic sleep, loss of body temperature control, production of excessive quantities of urine, loss of proprioception
Term
contains the anterior and posterior spinocerebellar tracts
Definition
White matter of the spinal cord __________________.

is composed of myelinated fibers only

ascends to higher PNS centers

has afferent fibers carrying impulses from peripheral sensory receptors

contains the anterior and posterior spinocerebellar tracts
Term
motor-anterior
Definition
Which association is most accurate?
sensory-anterior
motor-medial
sensory-medial
motor-anterior
Term
Brain wave amplitude
Definition
reflects the number of neurons firing synchronously
Term
mammilary body
Definition
where declarative memory is NOT stored
Term
Huntington's Disease
Definition
has symptoms that are opposite of Parkinson's disease
Term
Corpus striatum
Definition
plays a special role in skill learning
Term
Norepinephrine
Definition
Storing information in long-term memory is facilitated by the release of what?
Term
medulla
Definition
Which is probably not directly involved in memory?

hippocampus, medulla, amygdala, prefrontal cortex
Term
Visceral sensory area
Definition
The area of the cortex that is responsible for sensations of the full bladder and the feeling that your lungs will burst when you hold your breath too long is the _____________?
Term
Parkinson's Disease
Definition
tremor at rest, shuffling gait, stooped posture, and expressionless face are characteristics of ______________?
Term
Declarative memory
Definition
the ability to learn specific information
Term
Red nuclei
Definition
involved with motor activity (either initiation or coordination)
Term
Thalamus
Definition
2nd order neurons of both the specific and nonspecific ascending pathways terminate here.
Term
Premotor cortex
Definition
loss of the ability to perform skilled motor activities such as piano playing, with no paralysis or weakness in the specific muscles, might suggest damage to this.
Term
Theta
Definition
_________ waves are NOT normal for adults but are common for children
Term
central canal
Definition
The fourth ventricle is continuous with the ________ of the spinal cord.
Term
corups callosum
Definition
The large tract that connects the right and left sides of the brain
Term
pons
Definition
a conduction pathway between higher and lower brain centers and houses nuclei for cranial nerves V-VII
Term
pituitary gland
Definition
The infundibulum connects the hypothalamus to what?
Term
arachnoid billi
Definition
valvelike and protrude externally through the dura mater to absorb cerebrospinal fluid into venous blood
Term
dorsal
Definition
sensory neurons enter the spinal cord via the _____________ horn.
Term
Skill Memory
Definition
requires practice and is remembered by doing
Term
diencephalon
Definition
includes the thalamus, hypothalamus and epithalamus
Term
pyramids
Definition
2 longtidudinal ridges on the medulla oblongata where many descending fibers cross over
Term
substantia nigra
Definition
largest nuclear mass in the midbrain
Term
theta & delta
Definition
In stage 3 sleep, these two waves appear
Term
amygdala
Definition
the main switch station for memory; if the right and left areas are damaged, the past is lost
Term
Circadian rhythm
Definition
a 24-hour cycle of sleep and wakefulness
Term
sleep apnea
Definition
a temporary cessation of breathing during sleep found most commonly in the elderly
Term
Hydrocephaly refers to a blockage of the normal circulation and drainage of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) throughout the meninges and ventricles. If CSF is allowed to accumulate, excessive pressure could be exerted on the brain. In newborns, the fontanels allow the skull to enlarge, while in adults, the cranial bones are fused and no expansion is possible.
Definition
Describe the cause of hydrocephalus and explain why this is much more serious in adults than in newborns.
Term
The blood-brain barrier is absent around the vomiting center of the brain stem, so that it can monitor the blood for poisonous substances. It is also absent around the hypothalamus, so that it can monitor the chemical composition of blood and adjust water balance and other factors.
Definition
Which brain areas lack a blood-brain barrier, and what purpose does this absence serve?
Term
The cerebral cortex is only 2-4 mm thick; however, the convolutions effectively triple the cortical surface area. As a result, the cortex accounts for 40% of the total brain mass and functions in all conscious activity, including movement, sensory perception, thinking and memory.
Definition
What is the importance of the fact that the outer portion of the cerebral hemispheres is convoluted.
Term
The cauda equina is a collection of nerve roots at the inferior end of the vertebral canal and is given the name because of its resemblance to a horse's tail. This arrangement reflects the different rates of growth between the vertebral column and spinal cord. Because the column grows more rapidly than the cord, the lower nerves must "chase" their exit points inferiorly, thus forming the cauda equina.
Definition
What is the cauda equina and why is it given this name?
Term
The reticular activating system (RAS) appears to mediate the alertness state of the cerebral cortex. The thalamus, hypothalamus and other areas such as the brain stem appear to be interconnected with the RAS. The hypothalamus seems to be the structure responsible for the actual timing of the sleep-wake cycle. The primary neurotransmitter involved is serotonin.
Definition
Describe the role of the reticular activating system in cortical arousal and stimulation.
Term
lack of oxygen at birth, viral infection, excessive smoking by the mother, radiation, drugs, alcohol
Definition
some causes of cerebral palsy
Term
short term memory
Definition
fleeting memory of events that one is continuously exposed to; seems to be limited to 7-8 chunks of information at a time
Term
long term memory
Definition
semipermanent storage of information that involves the transfer of data; based on several factors including rehearsal, emotional state, association
Term
ANS
Definition
Controlled by the hypothalamus
Term
body temperature
Definition
Controlled by the hypothalamus
Term
regulation of food intake
Definition
Controlled by the hypothalamus
Term
regulation of water balance and thirst
Definition
Controlled by the hypothalamus
Term
regulation of the sleep-wake cycles
Definition
Controlled by the hypothalamus
Term
Center of emotional responses
Definition
Controlled by the hypothalamus
Term
control of endocrine functions
Definition
Controlled by the hypothalamus
Term
Limbic System
Definition
in control of our emotions, such as fear, anger, love, hate, etc. It can be acted upon by smell, memories, taste, sight and self-will.
Term
I-band
Definition
The band composed of only thin myofilaments
Term
Osteomalacia
Definition
The disease in children called "rickets" is known as ____________ in adults.
Term
Centrioles
Definition
these organize the mitotic spindle in cell division
Term
Sarcomere
Definition
one functional unit of a skeletal muscle
Term
Negative feedback
Definition
The pancreas and liver work together to maintain homeostasis through ______?
Term
Centrioles
Definition
these organize the mitotic spindle in cell division
Term
medulla
Definition
vital center for the control of heart rate, respiration and blood pressure.
Term
decreased proliferation of the epiphyseal plate cartilage
Definition
In bone formation, a decificiency of growth hormone will cause _____________________________________.
Term
7
Definition
Atom X has seventeen protons. How many electrons are in its valance shell?
Term
Principle of the Fluid Mosaid Model of cell membrane structure
Definition
Phospholipids form a bilayer that is largely impermeable to water-soluble molecules.
Term
Endosteum
Definition
the membrane lining the medullary canal
Term
Electron Transport Chain
Definition
The majority of ATP synthesis occurs during _____________________.
Term
ionic compounds
Definition
Salts are always
Term
Glycolosis
Definition
Which is the only phase that occurs in the cytoplasm and does not require oxygen?
Term
Tetanus
Definition
A rapid repetitive series of threshold stimuli leading to a single fused, sustained contraction.
Term
increasing the voltage up to the maximum
Definition
Strong muscle contractions are controlled by
Term
Converging circuit
Definition
A neuronal circuit that concentrates or directs a large number of incoming impulses to a rather small number of neurons
Term
Multi-unit muscles
Definition
Smooth muscles that act like skeletal muscles but are controlled by autonomic nerves and hormones
Term
Blood
Definition
a suspension
Term
cytoplasm
Definition
colloid or emulsion
Term
Seawater, air
Definition
examples of solution
Term
Anaphase
Definition
Chromosomal centromeres split and chromosomes migrate to opposite ends of the cell in which phase?
Term
A-band
Definition
The band formed due to the overlapping of thick and thin myofilaments.
Term
Ribosomal RNA
Definition
forms part of the protein synthesis site in cytoplasm
Term
tRNA
Definition
act as "interpreter" molecules that recognize specific amino acids and nucleotide base sequences
Term
Synthetase enzymes
Definition
Attaches the correct amino acid to its transfer RNA
Term
ATP
Definition
provides energy needed for synthesis reactions
Term
mRNA
Definition
Found in the cytoplasm, this structure specifies the exact sequence of amino acids of the protein to be made.
Term
rRNA
Definition
may be attached to the ER or scattered in the cytoplasm
Term
Telophase
Definition
chromosomes decoil to form chromatin
Term
Anaphase
Definition
chromosomal centromeres split and chomosomes migrate to the opposite ends of the cell
Term
Late prophase
Definition
Nuclear membrane and nucleolus disentegrate
Term
Metaphase
Definition
chromosomes align on the spindle equator
Term
Early prophase
Definition
Centrioles move to opposite ends of the cell
Term
Endoplasmic reticulum
Definition
plays a role in the synthesis of steroid-based hormones and proteins
Term
Ribosomes
Definition
actual site of protein synthesis
Term
Microtubules
Definition
Hollow cytoskeletal elements that act as organizers for the cytoskeleton
Term
nucleoli
Definition
dense spherical bodies in the nucleus that are the synthesis site for ribosomal RNA
Term
Nucleus
Definition
houses DNA & RNA
Term
Transcytosis
Definition
transporting an endosome from one side of a cell to the other and releasing the contents by exocytosis
Term
Smooth ER
Definition
In certain kinds of muscle cells, calcium ions are stored in ___________.
Term
tRNA
Definition
The RNA responsible for bringing the amino acids to the "factory" site for protein formation
Term
Swell and burst
Definition
A red blood cell placed in pure water would?
Term
Plasma Membrane
Definition
Phospholipid bilayer surrounding the cell
Term
gap junctions, desmosomes, tight junctions
Definition
Cell junctions that promote the coordinated activity of cells by physically binding them together into a cell community include __________________________.
Term
changes in the environment
Definition
Riboswitches are folded RNAs that act as switches to turn protein synthesis on or off in response to ______________.
Term
molecular transport through the membrane
Definition
function of a plasma membrane protein
Term
Mitosis
Definition
produces nucleus replication
Term
Centriole
Definition
The electron microscope has revealed that one of the components within the cell consists of microtubules arranged to forma hollow tube. This structure is what?
Term
Phospholipids
Definition
are both hydrophilic and hydrophobic in nature
Term
movement of a substance down its concentration gradient
Definition
Passive membrane transport processes include ___________________________.
Term
Caspases
Definition
Enzymes called ____________ destroy the cell's DNA and cytoskeleton, producing a quick death to the cell.
Term
Mitochondria
Definition
contain some of the DNA & RNA code necessary for their own function
Term
DNA replication
Definition
takes place during interphase of the cell cycle.
Term
Acromegaly
Definition
Abnormal growth of the hands, feet, and face, caused by overproduction of growth hormone by the pituitary gland.
Term
Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH)
Definition
Anterior pituitary hormone that influences the activity of the adrenal cortex.
Term
Aldosterone
Definition
Hormone produced by the adrenal cortex that regulates Na+ reabsorption and K+ secretion by the kidneys.
Term
Androgen
Definition
A hormone such as testosterone that controls male secondary sex characteristics.
Term
Anterior Pituitary (Adenohypophysis)
Definition
The glandular part of the pituitary gland.
Term
Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH or vasopressin)
Definition
Hormone produced by the hypothalamus and released by the posterior pituitary; stimulates the kidneys to reabsorb more water, reducing urine volume.
Term
Calcitonin
Definition
Hormone released by the thyroid. Lowers blood calcium levels only when present at high (therapeutic) levels.
Term
Cortisol (hydrocortisone)
Definition
Glucocorticoid produced by the adrenal cortex.
Term
Cretinism
Definition
Severe hypothyroidism resulting in physical and mental stunting in infants. It is characterized by mental retardation, impaired growth, low body temperature and abnormal bone formation.
Term
Cushing's Syndrome
Definition
A metabolic disorder caused by overproduction of glucocorticoid by the adrenal cortex and often involving obesity and high blood pressure. It can be caused by a tumor (then is called a disease) or most often, by the clinical administration of pharmacological doses of glucocorticoid drugs.
Term
Diabetes Mellitus (DM)
Definition
Disease caused by deficient insulin release or by insulin resistance, leading to inability of the body cells to use carbohydrates.
Term
Epinephrine
Definition
Chief hormone produced by the adrenal medulla. Also called adrenaline.
Term
Estrogen
Definition
Hormone that stimulates female secondary sex characteristics; female sex hormones.
Term
Glucagon
Definition
Hormone formed by alpa cells of pancreatic islets; raises the glucose level of blood.
Term
Endemic or Simple Goiter
Definition
Caused by a deficiency of iodine in the diet. One sees thyroid enlargement, listlessness, and weight gain. Thyroxine production slows because iodine is not available. In an attempt to increase thyroxine, the thyroid enlarges.
Term
Gonadotropin Hormone (FSH & LH)
Definition
Regulate the function of the gonads (ovaries & testes) & produced by the anterior pituitary. In both sexes, FSH stimulates gamete (sperm or egg) production and LH promotes production of gonadal hormones.
Term
Growth Hormone (GH)
Definition
Hormone that stimulates growth in general and metabolic actions; produced by cells called somatotrophs in anterior pituitary; also called somatotropin (STH); major targets are bones and skeletal muscles; promotes protein synthesis.
Term
Hormone
Definition
Steroidal or amino-acid based molecules released to the blood that act as chemical messengers to regulate specific body functions.
Term
Insulin
Definition
A hormone that enhances the carrier-mediated diffusion of glucose into tissue cells, thus lowering blood glucose levels.
Term
Melatonin
Definition
A hormone secreted by the pineal gland; secretion peaks at night and helps set sleep-wake cycles; also a powerful antioxidant.
Term
Myxedema
Definition
Condition resulting from underactive thyroid gland. Symptoms include a low metabolic rate; felling chilled; constipation; thick, dry skin and puffy eyes; edema; lethargy; and mental sluggishness (but not mental retardation).
Term
Norepinephrine (NE)
Definition
A catecholamine neurotransmitter and adrenal medullary hormone, associated with sympathetic nervous system activation.
Term
Pancreatic islets of Langerhans
Definition
Tiny cell clusters that produce pancreatic hormones. These contain 2 major populations of hormone-producing cells, the glucagon-synthesizing alpha cells and the more numerous insulin-producing beta cells.
Term
Parathyroid Hormone (PTH)
Definition
Protein hormone released by the parathyroid glands that regulates blood calcium level. Release is triggered by falling blood Ca 2+ levels and inhibited by rising blood Ca 2+ levels. 3 target organs: the skeleton, the kidneys & the intestine.

Stimulates osteoclasts, enhances reabsorption of Ca 2+ by kidneys & promotes activation of vitamin D, thereby increasing absorption of Ca 2+ from food.
Term
Pineal Gland (body)
Definition
A hormone-secreting part of the diencephalon of the brain through to be involved in setting the biological clock and influencing reproductive function.
Term
Polydipsia
Definition
One of 3 signs of DM. Excessive thirst stimulated by the hypothalamic thirst centers.
Term
Polyphagia
Definition
One of 3 signs of DM. Refers to excessive hunger and food consumption, a sign that the person is "starving in the land of plenty." Although plenty of glucose is available, it cannot be used and the body starts to utilize its fat and protein stores for energy metabolism.
Term
Polyuria
Definition
One of 3 signs of DM. Excessive glucose in the kidney filtrate acts as an osmotic diuretic, resulting in a huge urin output that leads to decreased blood volume and dehydration. Serious electrolyte losses also occur as the body rids itself of excess ketone bodies, which are negatively charged and carry positive ions out with them. As a result, Na+ and K+ are also lost from the body.
Term
Posterior Pituitary (neurohypophysis)
Definition
Portion of the gland derived from the brain; includes the infundibulum.
Term
Progesterone
Definition
Hormone partly responsible for preparing the uterus for the fertilized ovum.
Term
Prolactin (PRL)
Definition
Adenohypophyseal hormone that stimulates the breasts to produce milk.
Term
Prostaglandins
Definition
A lipid-based chemical messenger synthesized by most tissue cells that acts locally as a paracrine.
Term
Renin-Angiotensin Pathway
Definition
1st of 4 mechanisms regulating aldosterone secretion; influences both blood volume and blood pressure by regulating the release of aldosterone and therefore Na+ and water reabsorption by the kidneys. Specialized cells of the juxtaglomerular apparatus in the kidneys become excited when blood pressure (or blood volume) declines.; ultimately involved in raising blood pressure.
Term
Testosterone
Definition
Male sex hormone produced by the testes; during puberty promotes virilization, and is necessary for normal sperm production.
Term
Thymosin, Thymulin, Thymoproteins
Definition
families for peptide hormones secreted by Thymic epithelial cells. These hormones are though to be involved in the normal development of T lymphocytes and the immune response, but their roles are not well understood. The mainly act locally as paracrines.
Term
Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH)
Definition
Adenohypophyseal hormone that regulates secretion of thyroid hormones.
Term
Thyroxine (T4)
Definition
Iodine-containing hormone secreted by thyroid follicles; stimulates enzymes concerned with glucose oxidation.
Term
TSH
Definition
(Secreted by) Adenohypophysis
Term
Aldosterone
Definition
(Secreted by) Adrenal Gland
Term
Calcitonin
Definition
(Secreted by) Thyroid Gland
Term
ADH
Definition
(Secreted by) Neurohypophysis
Term
Melatonin
Definition
(Secreted by) Pineal Gland
Term
Function of FSH
Definition
Stimulates development of the follicle in the ovaries
Term
Function of ACTH
Definition
Stimulates the adrenal cortex to release corticosteroid hormones, most importantly glucocorticoids that help the body to resist stressors.
Term
Function of TSH
Definition
Stimulates the thyroid gland.
Term
Function of GH
Definition
Mobilizes fats, spares glucose, and promotes the protein synthesis necessary for growth.
Term
Function of ADH
Definition
Stimulates the kidney tubules to reabsorb water from urine; prevents wide swings in water balance, helping the body avoid dehydration and water overload.
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