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anatomy - lecture 1
anatomy
90
Biology
Graduate
08/26/2013

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Term
proximal vs distal
Definition
The term proximal (Latin proximus; nearest) describes where the appendage joins the body, and the term distal (Latin distare; to stand away from) is used for the point furthest from the point of attachment to the body. ex the hand is distal to the elbow. the elbow is proximal to the hand.
Term
ipsalateral vs contralater
Definition
ipsa = on the same side. contra = opposite side. the left elbow is ipsalateral to the left hand. the left elbow is contralateral to the right hand.
Term
superficial vs deep
Definition
Superficial (Latin superfacies; at the surface or face): near the outer surface of the organism. Thus, skin is superficial to the muscle layer. The opposite is "deep", or "visceral".
Deep: further away from the surface of the organism.
Term
lateral vs medial
Definition
medial = toward the midline. lateral = towards the left or right
Term
the saggital plane divides the body where?
Definition
in half right and left (like longitude) if in the middle, its the median plane
Term
transverse plane
Definition
like lattitude
Term
flexion and extension happen in what plane? what is the orientation of the axis?
Definition
saggital. the axis is medial/lateral
Term
abduction and adduction happen in what plane? what is the orientation of the axis?
Definition
frontal. the axis is anterior/posterior
Term
frontal plane
Definition
divides the body into anterior and posterior parts
Term
medial rotation vs lateral rotation
Definition
internal rotation vs external rotation.
Term
ventral vs dorsal
Definition
ventral (anterior) is towards the front. Dorsal (posterior) is towards the back)
Term
an organ has 4 main tissue types. what are they?
Definition
epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous tissues
Term
parenchyma vs stroma
Definition
the parenchyma of an organ consists of that tissue which conducts the specific function of the organ. The stroma is everything else. (ex: stomach parenchyma is epitherlial tissues which secrete acids, the stroma is smooth muscle, nessels, nerves, and supporting connective tissue)
Term
epithelial cells have an apical cell surface and a basillar surface. what are these?
Definition
the apical surface is free but the basilar surface lies on a basement membrane which attaches to adjacent connective tissue
Term
what is the most abundant tissue type in the body
Definition
connective tissue
Term
what is a hallmark of connective tissue?
Definition
specialized cells surrounded by a nonliving extracellular matric. tend to be very vascular
Term
name some specialized connective tissue cell types.
Definition
fibroblasts (most numerous), chondrocytes (in cartilage), osteoblasts, cyctes, and clasts (bone), adipocytes (fat), blood cells like macrophages, plasma cells, mast cells. Mesenchymal stem cells are undifferentiated cells that can become any CT
Term
what are the three types of loose CT?
Definition
areolar tissue (packing material between skin, muscle nerves, and vessels - allows sliding), adipose tissue, reticular tissue (high in reticular fibers which support the cells of organs like the spleen).
Term
what is dense irregular connective tissue?
Definition
located in the dermis of the skin, joint capsules, nerve and muscle. it has irregularly arranged collagen fibers to allow the tissue to withstand stress from many directions
Term
what is dense regular tissue?
Definition
found in tendons, ligaments, and deep fascia. similar to irregular dense CT, but fibers are orderly arranged in parallel fashion to withstand tensile force in one direction
Term
what is investing fascia?
Definition
surrounds individual muscles
Term
what is intermuscular septa?
Definition
divides muscles into groups/compartments
Term
what are fascial planes?
Definition
located between adjacent fascia.
Term
what type of connective tissue is in the dermis?
Definition
dense irregular
Term
what type of CT is in the hypodermis?
Definition
adipose and areolar tissue
Term
does the epidermis have blood supply?
Definition
no
Term
what are dermal papillae?
Definition
upward projections of the dermis which serve as attachment points for the epidermis
Term
hair and glands are epidermal derivatives that extend into the dermis. what attaches hair and glands?
Definition
smooth muscle fibers and arrector pilli
Term
what are the types of dense regular connective tissue?
Definition
ligaments and tendons
Term
what do ligaments connect?
Definition
bone to bone
Term
what do tendons connect?
Definition
muscle to bone. they are continuous with muscles at myotendinous junctions
Term
what has fewer elastic fibers, tendons or ligaments
Definition
tendons
Term
what are aponeurosis?
Definition
flat expanded tendons (palm)
Term
are tendons and ligaments well vascularized?
Definition
no
Term
tendons are strongly innervated by what?
Definition
proprioceptive sensory fibers.
Term
what is cartilage?
Definition
specialized cells called chondrocytes embedded within variable matrix fibers and ground substances. cartilage tissue is avascular and relies on diffusion.
Term
what is hyaline cartilate?
Definition
covers most bones at their joint surfaces. protects these surfaces, and also forms costal cartilage of the ribs, structure of the larynx, bronchi,
Term
what is elastic cartilage?
Definition
found in the external ear, epiglottis, auditory tube and larynx.
Term
what is fibrocartilage?
Definition
function is to resist compressive and shear forces. found in intervertebral and articular discs, labrum and meniscus. also found at insertion sites for tendons, ligaments, and bone.
Term
what is the function and structure of osseus tissue?
Definition
all bone has a dense outer layer of compact bone, and an inner layer of trabecular bone.
Term
what is the difference between compact bone and trabecular bone?
Definition
compact bone has many vertical canals andtrabecular bone is foudn at the ends of long bones and is composed of networks of interconnecting bars and plates which offer resistance to compression and lighten the weight of the bone. trabeculae are arranged along with the direction of force placed upon the bone.
Term
what are osteons?
Definition
vertical canals on compact bone which function to resist twisting and bending.
Term
loss of minerals in bones results in what?
Definition
osteoporosis. common in aging
Term
How do we classify bones by shape?
Definition
long, short, flat, or irregular, or sesamoid.
Term
what are short, flat, and irregular bones
Definition
they are thin plates of compact bone on the outside of trabecular bone on the inside.
Term
what are sesamoid bones?
Definition
sesamoids are small bones embedded in tendons near joints that serve to lengthen the effective lever arm of the muscle
Term
ia bone tissue well vascularized?
Definition
YES!
Term
is bone tissue well inervated?
Definition
NO! there is no innervation.
Term
what is periosteum? is it innervated?
Definition
periosteum is a dense connective tissue covering the bone. (the CT lining the inner medullary cavity is the endosteum). VERY innervated. this is why bones hurt when you break them :)
Term
KNOW YOUR BONE MARKINGS
Definition
Crest: ridge of bone (ex: the iliac crest at your waist)
Facet: smooth flat articulation (ex: superior/inferior articular facets of vertebral column)
Line: also known as “linea”. Linear elevation (ex: superior nuchal line of occiput)
Spine: elongated thorn-like process (ex: spine of scapula)
Condyle: rounded articulation (ex: condyles of the femur and humerus)
Epicondyle: eminence above a condyle (“epi” means above) (ex: epicondyles of femur and humerus)
Foramen: passage thru a bone (ex: vertebral foramen)
Fossa: a depression in a bone (ex: glenoid fossa of scapula)
Notch: indentation at edge of bone (ex: scapular notch)
Process: spine-like protuberance (ex: corocoid process of scapula; vertebral spinous process)
Protuberance: projection of bone (ex: external occipital protuberance of skull)
Malleolus: rounded prominence (ex: lateral malleolus of ankle)
Trochanter: large blunt elevation (ex: greater trochanter of femur)
Tubercle: small blunt or raised elevation/eminence (ex: greater and lesser tubercles of humerus)
Tuberosity: large rounded elevation (ex: tuberosities of radius and ulna)
Term
what are bones formed from?
Definition
embryonic mesenchyme
Term
define and explain intramembranous ossification and give an example which bones form that way
Definition
mesenchymal cells → osteoblasts → bone. Mesenchymal models of bone form during the embryonic period and then begin to ossify during fetal life.ex:clavicle, skull, mandible
Term
define and expain endochondral ossification and give an example
Definition
mesenchymal cells → chondroblasts → hyaline cartilage model → bone. Cartilage models form from mesenchyme during the fetal period. Bone tissue replaces this model. ex:developing limbs
Term
what is the epiphyseal plates and what are their function?
Definition
At birth, the diaphysis is
usually completely ossified but the two epiphyses are still cartilaginous. Thus, growth of the long bones occurs from secondary ossification centers
between the epiphysis and diaphysis at an area called the epiphyseal plate. Full linear growth occurs when the epiphyseal plates disappear and unite with the diaphyseal shaft
Term
what is an arthrosis?
Definition
a joint or articulation
Term
what is a synovial joint?
Definition
Synovial joints are considered true joints where articulating bones are united at an articular capsule composed of an external fibrous layer and an internal synovial membrane
Term
what is a fibrous or cartilaginous joint?
Definition
a fibrous joint is a false joint where articulating bones are unites by fibrous CT. a cartilaginous joint is a false joint where the articulating bones are united by cartilage.
Term
give some examples of fibrous joints
Definition
sutures of the skull, syndesmosis (between radius and ulna)
Term
give some examples of cartilaginous joints
Definition
Synchodroses: (Primary cartilaginous)
Joints are formed by hyaline cartilage and may allow some growth or bending. Examples: epiphyseal plate, sternocostal joints.
Symphyses: (Secondary cartilaginous)
Joints are formed by fibrocartilage. While only slight movement is allowed, strength and shock absorption is maximized. Examples: joints binding the discs and vertebrae within
the spinal column.
Term
synovial joints have two layers. what are they?
Definition
the external fibrous layer and the inner synovial membrane.
Term
what is the external fibrous layer of a synovial joint
Definition
usually hyaline cartilage but sometimes fibrocartilage.
Term
what is the internal synovial membrane?
Definition
The fibrous capsule is a sleeve of dense
irregular CT which blends into the periosteum of the articulating
bones
Term
is synovial membrane vasuclarized?
Definition
yes, which is good because cartilage isnt!
Term
what structures are associated with synovial joints?
Definition
articular discs, menisci, fat pads
Term
what are bursa and synovial sheaths?
Definition
they are expanded synovial membranes that reduce friction between tendons, skin, and synovial joint surfaces.
Term
what are the hallmarks of osteoarthritis?
Definition
loss of joint space , pain and stiffness, osteophytes
Term
what is osteoarthritis?
Definition
degeneration of joint cartilage and the underlying bone, most common from middle age onward. It causes pain and stiffness
Term
what are the types of synovial joints? give an example of each
Definition
hinge joints (uniaxial - elbow), pivot (uniaxial - vertebra), saddle (biaxial -thumb), condyloid (biaxial metacarpals), plane (AC joint), ball and socket (hip, shoulder)
Term
articulating bone surfaces are lined by what type of cartilage usually? is it vascular?
Definition
hyaline. it is both aneural and avascular.
Term
is articular cartilage innervated?
Definition
no
Term
what two types of nerves are in the joint capsule
Definition
pain fibers and proprioceptive fibers.
Term
what are the types of muscle tissue
Definition
skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle
Term
structure and function of cardiac muscle?
Definition
Cardiac muscle forms most of the walls of the heart and great vessels.
Cardiac muscle is under intrinsic involuntary control but can be
modified by the autonomic nervous system (ANS).
Term
structure and function of smooth muscles?
Definition
Smooth muscle forms part of the walls of most vessels and hollow organs. They are also found within the eye (i.e. iris and ciliary body)as well as hair follicles of the skin (i.e. arrector pili). Slow rhythmic
contractions of smooth muscle are controlled by the ANS.
Term
structure and function of skeletal muscles?
Definition
Skeletal muscles have a contractile portion composed of striated muscle tissue and a non-contractile portion composed of a large amount of CT collagen bundles.
Term
what are endomysium?
Definition
CT sheath that surrounds actin and myosin filaments of the contractile portion of skeletal muscle.
Term
what is the perimysium?
Definition
Large numbers of myofilaments are bundled into groups called fascicles by another CT sheath called the perimysium
Term
what is the epimysium?
Definition
a tough dense sheath of CT covering the entire muscle
Term
what is a proximal and distal attachement of muscles?
Definition
origin, and insertion. usually the proximal attachment stays fixed and the distal attachment moves
Term
cranial vs caudal
Definition
same as superior vs inferior. cranial is towards the head, caudal is towards the tail (or feet)
Term
rotation occurs in what plane, and around what axis?
Definition
it occurs in the transverse plane, and around the vertical or longitudinal axis
Term
rotation occurs in what plane, and around what axis?
Definition
it occurs in the transverse plane, and around the vertical or longitudinal axis
Term
does epithelial tissue have a vasuclar supply?
Definition
no. it receives nourishment via diffusion from underlying connective tissue vasculature.
Term
what are the two types of glandular epithelium?
Definition
endocrine (release hormones directly into the bloodstream), and exocrine (secretes into ducts)
Term
What are the four types of CT?
Definition
CT proper, cartilage, bone, and specialized
Term
what are the three types of CT proper?
Definition
loose CT, dense irregular CT, and dense regular CT.
Term
what exocrine glands are located within the skin?
Definition
sebaceous (stimulated by hormones) and sweat glands (stimulated by cholinergic sympathetic nerve fibers)
Term
what is the diaphysis and the epiphysis? how do their tissue distrubutions differ?
Definition
long bones have a diaphysis which is the outer tubular shaft formed of compact bone, the epiphysis (head) consists of the trabecular bone covered by a thin layer of compact bone.
Term
define the appendicular and axial skeleton
Definition
appendicular consists of the bones of the limbs + shoulder girdle + pelvis. axial consists of the skull, vertebral column, ribs, and sternum (
Term
what are the types of vertebra and how many are their of each?
Definition
there are 7 cervical, 12 thoracic, 5 lumbar, 5 fused sacral, and 4 fused coccyx vertebra. total is 33.
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