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Anatomy midterm
Human Anatomy
274
Anatomy
Undergraduate 1
10/08/2015

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Cards

Term
Define: Gross anatomy, histology, embryology, neuroanatomy
Definition
gross anatomy- study of anatomy at the macroscopic level
histology- study of microscopic structures of tissues
embryology- study of embryonic development (3 months= embryo, +6 months= fetus)
neuroanatomy-study of nervous system (CNS, PNS)
Term
define embryo and fetus
Definition
embryo- first 3 months
fetus- after 3 months
Term
define the following planes: frontal, transverse, midsaggital, medial, lateral, superior, inferior, proximal, distal
Definition
Frontal- front and back
Transverse- top and bottom
midsaggital- left and right side

medial-- to the midline
lateral- to the sides
superior- on supe
inferior- on bottom
proximal- closer to top/body
distal- farther away from bottom
Term
What are the three germ layers of the body and what do they develop into?
Definition
Ectoderm= outer germ layer which forms the CNS, epithelium
and nerves

Mesoderm= forms muscle, dermis, connective tissue, heart, blood, kidney and spleen

Endoderm= inner germ layer that forms the stomach, liver, pancreas, GI, bladder, trachea, and lungs
Term
What are the four basic tissue types
Definition
1.Epithelia
2.Connective
3.Muscular
4.Nervous
Term
General features and functions of the epithelial tissue
Definition
-closely aggregated cells, very little extracellular matrix
-Functions are to cover surfaces and allow for absorption (gut) secretion (glands) and sensation (neuropithelium).
Term
Glandular epithelium: Exocrine vs. Endrocrine, Secretory vs. Ducts, and Simple vs. Compound
Definition
Exocrine- secrete products through ducts (digestive, saliva, sweat)

Endocrine- are ductless and secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream (pituitary, thyroid, adrenal)

Secretory- endocrine (hormones)
Ducts- exocrine (digestive)

Simple- without branching duct (endocrine)
Compound- with branching ducts (exocrine)
Term
Classifying epithelium: arrangement of layers (3)
Definition
Simple- one layer
Pseudostratified- looks like more than one layer because nucleus is at different layers, but is actually only one layer.
Stratified- more than one layer
Term
Classifying epithelium: Cell shape
Definition
1.Squamous- very short, wide cells
2.Cuboidal- as tall as wide
3.Columnar- much taller than wide
Term
What are the three types of simple epithelium? Where do they occur?
Definition
1.Simple squamous- one layer with very short and wide cells (blood vessels)

2.Simple cuboidal- one layer with cells as tall as wide (pancreas)

3.Simple ciliated columnar- one layer with cells that are much taller than wide, with cilia. Occur in lungs.
Term
Types of stratified epithelium and where they are found
Definition
1.Stratified squamous- mouth

2.Transitional epithelium- the number of cells/layers of them change with fullness of the bladder. When bladder is full then there is less and when the bladder is empty then there is more.

3.Ciliated pseudostratified epithelium: lung
Term
Types of stratified epithelium and where they are found
Definition
1.Stratified squamous- mouth

2.Transitional epithelium- the number of cells/layers of them change with fullness of the bladder. When bladder is full then there is less and when the bladder is empty then there is more.

3.Ciliated pseudostratified epithelium: lung
Term
Function of the basement membrane in epithelium, what it consists of
Definition
-connects epithelium to connective tissue, which is needed as the epithelium is not vascularized.

-Consists of the Basal lamina, and reticular lamina (next to the connective tissue)
Term
Carcinomas: what are they, and what percentage of tumours do they start

What happens after carcinomas have punctured the basement membrane?
Definition
-malignant tumours of the epithelial cell origin

-After age of 45, 90% of all tumours are of epithelial origin

After carcinomas penetrate the basement membrane then they have reached the vasculature and they can metasize
Term
What three things make up connective tissue?
Definition
Made of cells, extraceullar matrix (collagen and fibres)
Term
What is the most common cell of connective tissue? What is the difference between fibroblasts and fibrocysts?
Definition
Fibroblasts are the most common

Fibroblasts- metabolically active. Synthesize the extracellular matrix, part of healing and scar formation.

Fibrocysts- metabolically inactive (quiescent).
Term
Cells of connective tissue (5)
Definition
Macrophages- phagocytes, part of the inflammatory/immune response, derived in the bone marrow.

Mast cells- release histamine (allergic reaction), involved in inflammatory/immune response, derived from bone marrow.

Plasma cells- create antibodies, have a large basophilic membrane due to RER

Leukocytes- travel from BV to connective tissue by diapedesis

Adipose cells- storage of fats
Term
what are the three fibre types of connective tissue?
Definition
1.Collagen
2.Reticular fibres- Collagen III are very thin and only visible with special staining
3.Elastic fibres- resistant to pulling
Term
Ground substance of connective tissue: what are the three molecules
Definition
1.Glycosaminoglycans (GAGS)- polysaccharides, hyaluronic acid

2.Proteoglycans (proteins + GAGAS)- dematan, chrondroitin, keratan, heparan-sulfate
Term
Where is scars and edema formed?
Definition
connective tissue
Term
Define Integument

What cells are epidermis made up of?
Definition
Integument- skin and its derivatives (sebaceous glands, nail, hair, sweat glands)

Epidermis is made up of stratified squamous epithelium, keratinized (keratinocytes)
Term
Explain the layers of the epidermis and what is occurring through the layers?
Definition
1.Corneum- a nucleated cells filled with keratin filaments
2.Granulosum- Keratohyalin granules
3.Spinosum- Spinous process, contains langheran cells
4.Germinnativum- stem cells into keratinocytes

Stem cells in the lowest layer are replacing the cells in the upper layers
Term
Cells of the epidermis (4)
Definition
Keratinocytes- water barrier

Melanocytes- secrete melanin and distribute it to keratinocytes

Langerhan cells- antigen-presenting cells

Merkels cells- responsible for cutaneous sensations
Term
Innervation: what nerves does connective tissue have and what sensations do they cover?
Definition
Free nerve endings- touch, temperature, and pain

Encapsulated nerve endings- Pacinian Corpuscles (vibratory), Meissner Corpuscles (touch), Krause Corpuscles (mechanical pressure)

** Touch is shared between both free nerve endings and encapsulated
Term
What are the four derivatives of the skin?
Definition
1.Sevaceous glands
2.Sweat glands
3.Arrector pili muscle- rising hair
4.Nails
Term
What tissue is cartilage and bone classified under?
Definition
They are types of connective tissue
Term
What is the similarities and differences between the three cartilage types?
Definition
They all consist of CHondrocyte, but differ in their make up of extracellular matrix
Term
what are the three types of cartilage
Definition
hyaline, elastic, and fibrocartilage
Term
Hyaline cartilage: What does the extracellular matrix consist of? What does the cells occur in?
Definition
Extracellular matrix: Collagen II, Proteoglycans, Chondronectin

Cells: Chondrocytes occur in lacuna as an isogenous group. Have no blood vessels and occur by diffusion.
Term
Hyaline cartilage: What is a Isogenous group? What is Apositional and Interstitial growth? What types of tissues does this occur in? What is the perichondrium and what is it capable of?
Definition
Isogenous group- a cluster of chondrocytes that are formed through a progenitor cell.

Apositional growth- cartilage grows in thickness due to increased extracellular matrix on the peripheral cartilage surface, which is accompanied by new chondroblasts that develop in the perichondrium.

Interstitial growth- growth within the centre of the cartilage by the chondrocytes dividing

Perichondrium-The dense irregular fibrous membrane of connective tissue covering the surface of cartilage except at the endings of joints. It is capable of differentiating into chondrocytes that results in appositional growth (increase in cartilage).
Term
What are the three places/functions of hyaline cartilage?
Definition
1.Embryonic Skeleton- able to change into adult skeleton

2.Trachea- contains hyaline cartilage which is why it is able to stay open

3.Hyaline cartilage covers joints, but does not have perichondrium so it remains smooth.
Term
Elastic fibres: What does their extracellular matrix contain? Where are they found?
Definition
Extracellular matrix consists of collagen II and elastic fibres.

Examples are the external ear, eustachian tube, epiglottis (serves to separate the GI system from the respiratory).
Term
Fibrocartilage: what is its extracellular matrix made up of? What are some examples?
Definition
Extracellular matrix is made up of a lot of collagen I fibres (dense connective tissue) and collagen II.

Found in intervertebral discs, symphysis pubis, sternoclavicular joint, temporomandibular joint, meinici, and certain tendons.
Term
What is the difference between tendons and ligaments
Definition
tendons- connect muscle to bone
ligaments- connect bone to bone
Term
What are the four different types of bone and where are they found?
Definition
1.Long bone- made up of the Epiphysis (ends), metaphysis (in between), and diaphysis (shaft). Example is the tibia.

2.Short- carpal and metacarpals

3.Flat- skull

4.Irregular- vertebrae
Term
What is the sequence of cells in the bone
Definition
1.Osteoprogenitors
2.Osteoblasts
3.Osteocytes
4.Osteoclasts (bone marrow)
Term
What is the things extracellular matrix can be made of?
Definition
Collagen I, proteoglycans, and glycoproteins
Term
What gets mineralized in bone and with what?
Definition
Occurs of the extracellular matrix by calcium and phosphorus: hydroxyapatite crystals.
Term
What is the function of bone tissue?
Definition
Support (skeleton), protect (skull), and store (calcium and phosphate)
Term
Define mesenchyme (osteoprogenitor cells) and osteoid
Definition
Mesenchyme- contains the stem cells called osteoprogenitor cells, that develop into osteoblasts.
Term
Osteocytes: Where do they occur? What is their function
Definition
They are located in lacunae and canaliculi

Canaiculi- canals that allow the passage of vasculature to the bone.
Term
Define a osteon/haversion canale, and volkmann canal
Definition
Osteon/haversion canal- the fundamental functional unit of compact bone, are cylindrical systems

Volkmanns canals are located inside osteons,
Term
Intramembraneous ossification: how does it work and where does it occur
Definition
bone is created on mesenchyme (embryonic tissue) directly (ex. skull). Involves growth within the bones (intra)
Term
Endochondral ossification
Definition
Mesenchyme makes chondroblasts (hyaline cartilage), which serves as a template and then makes bone and creates long bone.
Term
What are the four steps to bone remodellings
Definition
1.Intramembraneous- periosteal proliferation
2.Hyaline cartilage- endochrondral
3.Spongy- newly formed primary bone, forms callus
4.Compact- healed fracture, secondary bone
Term
Define the following diseases: Pagets disease, osteoporosis, rickets, scurvy
Definition
Pagets disease- uncontrolled osteoclast and osteoblact activity lead to larger but unorganized bones that are prone to fractures.

Osteoporosis- respiration by osteoclasts exceeds deposition by osteoblasts, which lead sot bone fractures and vertebrae compressions

Rickets- insufficient calcium (or vitamine D needed for adulthood (osteomalacia) leads to abnormal calcification of the bone matrix.

Scurvy- vitamin C deficiency results in non-calcifiable collage of the bone matrix.
Term
Axial skeleton- what does it consist of?
Definition
Skull (27)
Cranium (11)- frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital, sphenoid, ethmoid, inf. nasal concae, vomer.
Face (!0)- nasal, maxillezygonatic, mandible, lacrimal, palatine
Auditory ossicles- malleus, incus, staples

Hyoid

Vertebral column

Thorax 25 (ribs 24 and sternum 1)
Term
Appendicular skeleton:
Definition
1.Upper limbs:
Pectoral girdle- clavicle, scapula
Humerus, Ulna, Radius, Carpals, Metacarpals, Phalangs

2.Lower limbs
Pelvic girdles (hip or pelvic)
Femur, Patella, Tibia, Fibula, Tarsals, Metatarsals, Phalangs
Term
Appendicular skeleton:
Definition
1.Upper limbs:
Pectoral girdle- clavicle, scapula
Humerus, Ulna, Radius, Carpals, Metacarpals, Phalangs

2.Lower limbs
Pelvic girdles (hip or pelvic)
Femur, Patella, Tibia, Fibula, Tarsals, Metatarsals, Phalangs
Term
Describe where the synovial membrane is found, what it contains in it and where it comes from
Definition
Synovial membrane is located inside joints. It contains synovial fluid which comes from the dialysate from plasma, and its function is to lubricate, provide nutrition and have cells for phagocytosis.
Term
What are the three different types of muscle tissues and how do they differ?
Definition
1.Skeletal muscle- strong, quick, discontinuous and voluntary contractions

2.Cardiac- Strong, quick and continuous involuntary contractions

3.Smooth- weak, slow and involuntary contractions
Term
What is the difference in skeletal, cardiac and smooth muscle in how they are made up
Definition
Skeletal- cells during development fuse to create fibres, so does not have individual cells. Fibres allows the contractions to be voluntary and strong.

Cardiac- cells are not fused, remain individual. Each cell is connected to each other by inter collated discs (gap junctions) which allows the cells to communicate fast, which allows the heart to contract at once.

smooth- moves by peristalsis in the gut.
Term
What is the function of satellite cells in skeletal muscle?
Definition
They are myoblasts that maintain in the tissue as satellite cells which are retain the ability to fuse with one another or with damaged muscle fibers to regenerate functional muscle fibres. However, the number of satellite cells are not able to compensate for a significant muscle loss or degeneration.
Term
What is skeletal muscle grouped into and what is the thin and thick portion made up of?

Describe the Perimysium, Endomysium and Epimysoim
Definition
It is composed of myofilaments, which are made up of thick (myosin) and thin (actin) filaments.

Endomysium- thin wrapping of connective tissue that surrounds each muscle fibre.
Perimysium- covers a grouping of muscle fibres, which is called a fasiculus, which is made up of connective tissue.
Epimysium- thick covering of connective tissue that covers the periphery of the muscle.
Term
Cardiac muscle: How are the cells connected and why is this important? Where is the nuclei located in the cell?
Definition
Linear cell-to-cell attachment by intercalated discs, which results in the formation of cardiac muscle fibres. The intercalated discs allows the muscle to contract at once.

The nuclei are located centrally.

-contains endomysium (wrapping of connective tissue around the muscle fibres).
Term
Smooth muscle: What type of cells do they consist of? Where is the nucleus located? How do they communicate? What do they have similar to cardiac and skeletal and what is different?

What is the bouton en passant?
Definition
Made up of fusiform cells (long, spindle shaped)
Centrally located nucleus.

They contain gap junctions connecting the cells, and they have a endomysium which is similar to skeletal and cardiac muscle.

They don't have striations, which cardiac and skeletal have.

Bouton en passant- nerve terminals in the endomysium.
Term
Development of muscle tissue: What layer is it derived from? What are the segments it goes through?

What do myotomes, dermatomes, sclerotomes and mesodermal cells develop into?
Definition
The muscle tissues develop from mesoderm. This segments into somitomeres which then further segment into somites.

Myotomes form the skeletal muscle of trunk and limbs
Dermatome form the connective tissue and dermis of the skin
Sclerotome forms the vertebrae
Mesodermal cells form the cardiac and smooth muscle
Term
what is a somite, what does it differentiate into and what does that give rise to?
Definition
Somites are structures that differentiate into myotomes which is the source of all striated muscle
Term
What does the CNS and PNS consist of?
Definition
CNS- brain and spinal cord

PNS- nerves (cranial, spinal and peripheral), specialized nerve endings and ganglia.
Term
Describe the function of the somatic and autonomic nervous system
Definition
Somatic- provides sensory and motor innervation to all parts of the body (except viscera, smooth muscle and glands).

Autonomic- provides innervation to smooth muscle, heart and glands and receives sensory innervation from the viscera (pain and reflexes). Subdivided into: sympathetic, parasympathetic and enteric.
Term
Where are the cranial and spinal nerves located?
Definition
Cranial- located in the brain stem

Spinal- located in the spinal cord
Term
What are the three things that nervous tissue is made up of?
Definition
1.Neurons (motor, sensory and interneurons)
2.Glia (CNS)
3.Schwann and satellite cells (PNS)
Term
What is a neuron/soma/perikarya? What is a nissel? What are dendrites and what are axons?
Definition
Neurons- cell body

perikaryon- "around the nucleus"

dendrites are extensions of the cell body that receive information.

axons- extension of the neurons that actually make up the nerves and release information.
Term
What is the difference between a neuron and nerve?
Definition
Neuron- the cell or soma

Nerves- made up of the axon of neurons
Term
What are the three types of neurons?
Definition
1.Bipolar- two sets of dendrites
2.Multipolar- many sets of dendrites
3.Psuedounipolar- has two axons that split into two
Term
What are the three types of neurons?
Definition
1.Bipolar- two sets of dendrites
2.Multipolar- many sets of dendrites
3.Psuedounipolar- has two axons that split into two
Term
What are the two types of synapses?
Definition
1.Chemical- cell produces a protein and sends it to the next cell (acetylcholine, epinephrine, dopamine)

2.Electrical- have a gap junction between cells that allows for communication between them. Found in cardiomyocytes, and do not have a chemical involved.
Term
Where are unmyelinated neurons located?
Definition
they are located in the PNS
Term
Define Perineum, Epineurium, Endoneurium
Definition
Perineum- connective tissue wrapping around fascicles in a nerve

Epineurium- the superficial connective tissue covering an entire nerve

Endoneurium- connective tissue wrapping around individual nerve axons.
Term
what is the difference between axosomatic and axoaxonic synapses?
Definition
1.axosomatic or axodendritic- axon of one neuron interacts with the soma or dendrites

2.Axoaxonic- axon of one neuron interacts with another axon
Term
What are dopaminergic neurons
Definition
release dopamine through chemical synapses. this is related to parkinsons disease where their dopamine producing cells degenerate
Term
Explain the 7 steps of the synapse
Definition
1.Presynaptic neuron depolarizes
2.Breif opening of Ca channels
3.Calcium influx promotes exocutosis of synaptic vesicles
4.Release of neurotransmitter
5.Neurotransmitter reacts with receptors
6.Promotes postsynaptic membrane depolarization
7.Membrane retrieval of coated vesicles with neurotransmitter
Term
Glia (CNS): What are the four types of cells and what are their function?
Definition
1.Olgiodendrocytes- produce myelin
2.Astrocytes- metabolic support
3.Microglia- phagocytosis
4.Ependymal- lining of ventricles and central canal
Term
How does MS occur?
Definition
loss of myelin in CNS that involves the oligocendrocytes
Term
Myelin shealth- where does it come from
Definition
olgiodendrites provide myelination to axon of neurons, and they provide this to more than one neuron at a time.
Term
What is the difference between grey and white matter
Definition
1.Grey matter- made up of neuronal bodies (somas)
2.White matter- made up of axons of neurons (covered by lots of myelin)
Term
Glia (PNS): What two things is it made up of?
Definition
1.Schwann cells- myelinated and unmyelinated axons. Provide myelin to axons in PNS

2.Satelite cells- ganglia (sensory in creanial/spinal nerves or autonomic)
Term
In the PNS what cell produces myelin and how many neurons would it cover?

What are nodes of ranvier?
Definition
Schwann cells warp myelin around axons of neurons in PNS. 1 schwann cell for 1 axon.

node of ranvier- end of one schwann cell and beginning of another. This is important as it allows the action poteional to jump through the nodes of ran view which allows the conduction to continue.
Term
Peripheral nerves- how are they put together?
Definition
They contain many myelinated neurons that are bundled by connective tissue which provides vasculature to the nerves.
Term
Explain the injury and repair of neurons
Definition
1.Injury= damage to the axon. Schwann cells will proliferate

2.Axon will regrow from schwann cells, muscle will atrophy but can regrow

3.Sometimes axon will not reform the previous connection
Term
Spinal nerves- how are they arranged?
Definition
They exit the spinal cord at different levels and classified by the region of the spine they exist at. They are arranged into different plexuses.
Term
Where do the brachial plexus leave from?
Definition
C5-T1
Term
What are the three main nerves of the upper limb?
Definition
Ulnar nerve, medial nerve, and radial nerve
Term
Explain the four steps to the reflex arc
Definition
1.Sensory stretch- tendon that connects bone to muscle will stretch the muscle
2.Sensory neuron (dorsal root ganglia) impulse goes into the spinal cord and impulse gets generated
3.Motor neurons will send their impulse down the axon
4.Muscle will contract

-has no interact with the brain nerves
Term
What are the general 5 steps to the reflex arc
Definition
1.Sensory receptor
2.Sensory neuron
3.Integration centre
4.Motor neuron
5.Effector/result
Term
Spinal cord: What are tracts, what are they made up of and what is the difference between motor and sensor tracts?
Definition
They contain motor and sensory tracts that run up and down the spinal cord which are made out of white matter.

Motor tracts- carries down the spinal cord
Sensory tracts- carries up the spinal cord
Term
What are the four major sections of the brain and what do they consist of?
Definition
1.Cerebrum- large
2.Cerebellum- "little brain"
3.Diencephalon- thalamus and hypothalamus
4.Brain stem- midbrain, pons and medulla oblongata
Term
What are the four different ventricles of the brain
Definition
1.Lateral- there are two, on the left and right sides of the brain
2.Mdibrain
3.Brain stem
Term
What is the central canal
Definition
blood vessel that feed into the spinal cord
Term
Blood brain barrier- what is its function?

What is an example of this in new generation of antihistamines?
Definition
allows exchange and protection between brain and blood.

New generation of antihistamines are not able to cross the blood brain barrier and therefore don't cause drowsiness.
Term
Cortex of the brain-
Definition
made up of regions that have different functions
Term
What is the basal nuclei?
Definition
comprise multiple subcortical nuclei, of varied origin, in the brains of vertebrates, which are situated at the base of the forebrain. Basal ganglia nuclei are strongly interconnected with the cerebral cortex, thalamus, and brainstem, as well as several other brain areas. The basal ganglia are associated with a variety of functions including: control of voluntary motor movements, procedural learning, routine behaviors or "habits" such as bruxism, eye movements, cognition[1] and emotion.

Contains the caudate nucleus, putamen, and globes
Term
What is the function of the limbic system
Definition
memory, emotions and olfaction
Term
What is the function of diencephalen
Definition
thalamus- relay control that connects things to the cortex

hypothalamus- endocrine gland that controls a lot

epithalamus- where melatonin is stored, which is the regulator of circadian rhythms
Term
cerebellum function
Definition
fine tuning of motor
Term
What is the function of the brain stem
Definition
important for continuation of motor activate
Term
How many cranial nerves are there

What is the function of Oculomotor (III), Trochlear (IV), Abducens (VI), Trigeminal (V) and Vagus (X) nerves
Definition
Oculomotor- eyeball and eye lid movement

Trochlear- provides movement to the eyeball

Abducens- controls lateral rectus of the eye

Trigeminal- controls mouth movement

Vagus- digestive system
Term
What are the four cells of the epidermis and what is their function
Definition
1)Keratinocytes- Produce the protein keratin
2)Melanocytes- Produce the pigment melanin
3)Langerhans- Participate in immune responses
4)Merkel- Sensation of touch
Term
Explain the layers of the integumentary system
Definition
1.Epithelium
2.Basement membrane: Basal lamina (lamina and collagen), and then Reticular lamina (collagen by fibroblasts)
3.Connective tissue
4.Subcutaneous tissue
Term
What are the four cells in bones and what is their function
Definition
1.Osteogenic cells- unspecialized cell that are derived from mesenchyme
2.Osteoblasts- bone building cells that secrete collage fibres and other organic compounds
3.Osteocytes- mature bone cells that are the main cells in bone tissue and maintain its daily metabolism
4.Osteoclasts- huge cells derived from the fusion of as many as 50 monocytes
Term
Compact bone: Explain the osteon/haversian system
Definition
The osteion/haversian system is the basic structural unit of compact bone. There is a central canal, and branching off lacunae which contain osteocytes, and then branching from all lacunae are canaliculi.

The areas between the neighbouring osteons contain interstitial lamellae.
Term
Explain the internal structures of spongy tissue
Definition
Spongy bone does not contain osteon, it consists of lamellae that are that are arranged in thin columns of bone called trabecular which are filled with bone marrow. Within each trabecula are osteocytes that lie in lacunae, and coming from the lacunae are canaliculi.
Term
What is the general difference between compact and spongy bone?
Definition
The spongy bone makes the bones more light weight and they also have bone marrow which produce blood cells.
Term
What are the three different types of joints and where do they occur?
Definition
Fibrous- syntrthroses in which the neighboring bones are joined together by a solid mass of dense irregular connective tissue. These occur in skull, roots of teeth and their sockets and between the ulna and radius and tibia and fibula.

Cartilaginous- syntharthrosis which is connected by a solid connective tissue that allows little or no movement.
These can be found in the pubic symphysis (between the hip bones), the manubrium (sternum) and vertebral columns.

Synovial- presence of a synovial cavity that is surrounded by a connective tissue capsule that connects the articulating bones. The synovial cavity is covered by a layer of articular cartilage and has synovial fluid. These are found in the knees and elbows.
Term
Forearm flexors (3)
Definition
1.Biceps brachii
2.Brachialis
3.Brachioradialis
Term
Forearm extensors (2)
Definition
1.Triceps brachii
2.Anconeus
Term
Thigh flexors (3)
Definition
Hamstrings
1.Biceps femoris
2.Semitendinosus
3.Semimembraneous
Term
Thigh extensors (5)
Definition
Quadriceps
1.rectus femoris
2.vastus femoris
3.vastus medialis
4.vastus intermedius

5.Sartorius
Term
Describe the flow of arteries to the U.limb
Definition
Arch of aorta
Braciocephalix trunk
Right Subclavian
Right Axillary
Right Brachial
Right Radial- right superficial palmar arch- right common palmar digital- right proper palmar digital
Right Ulnar- Right deep palmer arch- right palmar metacarpal
Term
Describe the flow of arteries to the L.limb
Definition
Abdominal aorta
Right common iliac
Right external iliac
Right femoral
Right popliteal
Right Anterior tibial- Right dorsal artery of foot- Right arcuate- right dorsal metatarsal- right dorsal digital
Right posterior tibial- right fibular- right medial plantar

RIght dorsal artery feeds into the right lateral plantar, right plantar arch, right plantar metatarsal and right plantar digital
Term
Describe the general flow of veins from the U. limbs
Definition
Cephalic, Basilic, Median Antebrachial veins, radial veins and ulnar veins all feed into the Brachial veins, which feed into the Axillary veins and then finally feed into the Subclavian veins.
Term
What are the superficial and deep veins of the upper limbs?
Definition
Superficial- Cephalic, Basilic and Median Antebrachial veins

Deep- Radial, Ulnar, Brachial, Axillary and Subclavian.
Term
Explain the general flow of veins from the L. limb
Definition
The great saphenous veins, small saphenous veins, posterior tibial veins, and anterior tibial veins all feed into the popliteal veins and then the femoral veins.
Term
Describe the composition of blood
Definition
It is made up of 45% formed elements and 55% blood plasma. 99% of formed elements are RBC, and 1% are WBC.
Term
What are the main cells of blood?
Definition
RBCS, WBCS (neutrophils, eosionphils, basophils, T and B cells and monocytes), Platelets.
Term
Explain the parts of the cervical plexus, brachial plexus, lumbar plexus, sacral plexus
Definition
Cervical- C1-C4 (head and neck)
Brachial- C5-C8, T1 (chest, shoulder, arms and hands)
Lumbar- L1-L4 (abdomin, groin, thighs, knees and calves)
Sacral- L4-S4 (pelvis, buttocks, genitals, thighs, calves and feet)
Term
Explain the make up of the different nerves of the spinal cord
Definition
Cervical nerves (8)
Thoracic nerves (12)
Lumbar nerves (5)
Sacral nerves (5)
Coccygeal nerves (1)
Term
Describe the three layers of BV and what they consist of

Explain the flow of BV through the body
Definition
1.Tunica INterna: innermost layer and is simple squamous epithelium, called endothelium.

2.Contains mostly smooth muscle with some elastic fibres. Has the greatest variation amoung BV.

3.Tunica Externa- consists of elastic and collagenous fibres

Arteries- Arterioles- Capillaries- Venules- Veins
Term
How many different bones are there in the adult skeleton and what are the 5 different types of bones
Definition
There is 206

long bones- humerus
Short bones- wrist, trapezoid
flat bones- sternum, skull
Irreglar bones- vertebra
Sesamoid bone- patella
Term
Explain the four different types of cells of bones
Definition
1.Osteogenic cells- unspecialized stem cells derived from mesenchyme
2.Osteoblasts- synthesize and secrete collage fibres and other organic materials
3.Osteocytes- mature bone cells that perform daily metabolic activities
4.Osteoclasts- huge cells derived from the fusion of as many as 50 monocytes
Term
Steps in Intramembraneous ossification
Definition
-Is the simpler of the two

1.Development of the ossification centre
2.Calcification
3.Formation of trabexulae
4.Development of periosteum
Term
Describe the steps of endochondral ossification
Definition
1.Development of cartilage model
2.Growth of the cartilage model
3.Development of the primary ossification model
4.Development of medullary (marrow) cavity
5.Development of the secondary ossification centres
6.Formation of articular cartilage and the epiphyseal plate
Term
Describe the difference between compound, comminuted, greenstick, impacted, pot's, and collie's fractures
Definition
Compound-broken ends of bones protrude through the skin

Communited fracture- bone is splintered, crushed, or broken into pieces at the site of impact.

Greenstick- partial fracture in which one side of the bone is broken and the other side bends.

Impacted fracture- one end of the fractured bone is forcefully driven into the interior of the other

Pott's- a fracture of the distal end of the lateral leg bone, with serious injury of the distal trivial articulation

Colles- fracture of the distal end of the lateral forearm bone (radius) in which the distal fragment is displaced posteriorly.
Term
What are the three major things that affect bone growth
Definition
1.minerals- calcium and phosphorus
2.Vitamins- vit A and C
3.Hormones- IGF's (insulin like growth factor)
Term
What is the difference between sprain and a strain
Definition
Sprain- twisting of a joint that stretches or tears its ligaments but does not dislocated the bone.

Strain- stretched or partially torn muscle
Term
Muscle fibres
Definition
Skeletal muscle is a spearate organ composed of hundreds to thousands of skeletal muscle cells, also called muscle fibres
Term
What is the difference between hypertrophy and hyperplasia
Definition
Hypertrophy= enlargement of existing muscle fibres
Hyperplasia= an increase in the number of fibers
Term
What is the sacroplasma and what does it contain to make it red?
Definition
Sacrolemma is the plasma membrane of the muscle fibers

It contains myoglobin which makes it red
Term
What are the contractile elements of skeletal muscle?
Definition
myofibrils
Term
What is the difference between muscle atrophy and hypertrophy
Definition
atrophy is wasting away of muscle

hypertrophy is an increase in the size of muscle fibers
Term
What are the three types of myofibril proteins?
Definition
1.contractile proteins
2.regulatory proteins
3.structural proteins
Term
What is myosin and what is it constituents

what do thin filaments consist of
Definition
Myosin functions as the motor protein in all three types of muscle tissue, consist of thin and thick filaments

Thin filaments extend from the anchoring points within the Z disc, and their main component in actin. Also contains tropomyosin and troponin.
Term
What is a motor unit
Definition
a somatic motor neuron plus all the skeletal muscle fibres it innervates, which can be as many as 150
Term
What is the difference between isotonic and isometric contractions
Definition
isotonic- the tension developed from muscle white the muscle changes length

isometric- tension generated in muscle is not enough to cause the muscle to change length
Term
How are muscle fibres connected to one another
Definition
They are connected by inter collated discs which contain demosomes (hold the fibres together) and gap junctions (allow them to communicate).
Term
What are the three functions of blood
Definition
Transportation, regulation (pH and temperature), Protection (protects against excess loss from the cardiovascular system).
Term
Define hematocrit, hemopoiesis, and red bone marrow and where is it present
Definition
The percentage of total blood volume occupied by RBCs

Homeopiosis is the process by which formed elements of blood develop

red bone marrow- is a highly vascularized connective tissue located in the microscopic spaces between traveulae of spongy bone tissue. As a baby all bone marrow is red, but as you age most of it gets replaced by yellow bone marrow
Term
Explain the composition of a RBC with globulin and heme

What is the process by which RBCs are made and what cells are they made out of?

What are RBCs missing as a organelle
Definition
RBC is made up of a protein called globulin which contains four nonprotein pigments called heme that bind to oxygen.

Erythhropoiesis is the production of RBCs which starts in the red bone marrow by pro erythroblasts.

RBCs do not have a nucleus
Term
What is the function of neutrophils, macrophages, monocytes, eosionophils, and lymphocytes
Definition
neutrophils and macrophages are active in phagocytosis

monocytes differentiate into macrophages at the site of infections/injury

basophils will release histamine and serotonin which intensify the inflammatory reaction and are involved in allergic reactions.

eosionphils release enzymes, such s histaminease, that combat the effects of histamine and other mediators of inflammatory or allergic reactions. Also involved in parasitic infections.

Lymphocytes consist of T cells, B cells and NK cells (natural killer).
Term
Define the central nervous system and peripheral nervous system and what they are composed of
Definition
It is composed of the brain and spinal cord.

Peripheral nervous system is composed of all the nervous structures outside the CNS, such as the cranial nerves sand their branches, ganglia, enteric plexuses and sensory receptors.
Term
How many pairs of cranial nerves and spinal nerves are there?

Define ganglia, enteric plexuses, and sensory receptors
Definition
There are 12 pairs of cranial nerves which emerge from the base of the brain and 31 pairs of spinal nerves which emerge from the spinal cord.

Ganglia are small masses of nervous tissue consisting primarily of neuron cell bodies that are located outside the brain and spinal cord.

Enteric plexuses are extensive networks of neurons that regulate organs of the gastrointestinal tract.

Sensory receptors are structures that monitor changes in the internal and external environment.
Term
Describe the difference between sensory function, integrative function and motor function
Definition
Sensory function: sensory receptors that detect internal and external stimuli with neurons called sensory neurons. They carry this information into the brain and spinal cord through cranial and spinal nerves.

Integrative function is when the nervous system integrates sensory information by analyzing and storing some of it and by making decisions for appropriate responses. Many of the neurons that participate in integration are interneurons.

Motor function is when the nervous system elicits a response such as muscular contraction or glandular secretion. This is composed of motor/efferent neurons.
Term
Describe the difference between the Somatic and Autonomical nervous system of the PNS
Definition
Somatic consists of sensory neurons that convey information from sensory receptors in the skin, skeletal muscles, joint and for special senses to the CNS.

Autonomic has sensory neurons and motor nuerons taht convey information from the CNS to the smooth muscle and cause muscle to contracts and glands to secrete. The two major parts of the ANS is the sympathetic (increase) and parasympathetic (decrease).
Term
Neurons: What are they capable of, what is the cell body, what is a nerve fibre and what are the two different types,
Definition
Neurons or nerve cells are cells that posses electrical excitability.

Cell body or perikaryon is part of the neuron that contains the nucleus and other organelles. Neurons contain nissel bodies that store the RER.

Nerve fibre is a neuronal process that can either be multiple dendrites or a single axon. Dendrites receives information and axons transmit it.
Term
Define a synapse, presynaptic neuron and postsynaptic cell
Definition
Synapse- site of communication between two neurons or between a neuron and an effects cell

Presynaptic neuron- a nerve cell that carries a nerve impulse towards a synapse

Postsynaptic cell- nerve cell or effector that carries a nerve impulse away from a synapse
Term
Describe the general function of the following neurotransmitters:
Definition
ACetylcholine- releases by PNS neurons that is excitatory at neuromuscular junctions

GABA and Glycine- important inhibitory neurotransmitters

Norepinephrine- plays a role in arousal, dreaming and regulation mood.

Dopamine- active during emotional responses, addictive behaviours, and pleasurable experiences.

Serotonin- involve in sensory perception, temperature regulation, control of moot, appetite and the onset of sleep.

Endorphins- neuropeptides that serve as the body's natural painkillers.
Term
What is the difference between Multipolar neurons, Bipolar neurons, and Unipolar neurons
Definition
Multipolar- Contain several dendrites and one axon

Bipolar- have one main dendrite and one axon

Unipolar- axon and dendrite fuse into a single process that divided into two branches a short distance from the cell body.
Term
Neurglia of the CNS: What is the function of Astrocytes, Oligodendrocytes, Microglia, and Ependymal cells
Definition
Astrocytes- they contain microfilaments that provide support to neurons, provide permeability to the endothelium, help maintain the appropriate chemical environment for the generation of nerve impulses, play a role in learned and memory by influencing the formation of neural synapses.

Olgiodendrites- process are responsible for forming and maintaining the myelin sheath around CNS axons.

Microglia- originate in red bone marrow and migrate to the nervous tissue, function as phagocytes.

Ependymal cells- line the ventricles of the brian and spinal cord, which will produce, monitor and assist in the circulation of cerebrospinal fluid.
Term
What is the function of the following neuroglia in the PNS: schwann cells, satellite cells
Definition
Schwann cells- neuromyelinators that encircle PNS axons, and they form the myeline stealth around axons. A single olgiodendrite myelinates several axons but a but schwann cell can enclose as many as 20 or more unmyelinated axons.

Satellite cell- regular the exchange of materials between neuronal cell bodies and interstitial fluid.
Term
Define myelin shealth, nodes of ranvier, and demyelination
Definition
Myelin sheath- axons that are surrounded by multi layer lipid and protein sheaths

Nodes of ranvier- gaps in the myelin stealth that appear at internals.

Demyelination- loss or destruction of myelin sheaths around axons that can result from disease such as Tay sacs, or MS.
Term
What is the difference between grey and white matter
Definition
Grey- contains neuronal cell bodes, dendrites, unmyelinated axons, axon terminals and neuroglia.

White- aggregations of myelinated and unmyelinated axons of many neurons, the whitish colour of myelin is what give it its colour.
Term
What are meninges, what are the three different types and what is the spinal and cranial meninges?
Definition
Meninges are dense connective tissue that encircle the spinal cord and brain. They consist of dura mater, arachnoid mater and pia matter.

The spinal meninges wrap around the spinal cord and the cranial wrap around the brain.
Term
What is the difference between sensory (ascending) tracts and motor (descending) tracts
Definition
Sensory consist of axons that conduct nerve impulses from the spinal cord toward the brain. Tracts consisting of axons that carry nerve impulses away from the brain down the spinal cord are called motor (descending) tracts.
Term
Spinal nerves: what are they, how many are there and what groups do they make up?
Definition
They are the nerves that branch from them are part of the peripheral nervous system. They connect the CNS to sensory receptors, muscles and glands in all parts of the body. There are 31 paris of spinal nerves.

Cervical nerves- 8 pairs from C1- C8
Thoracis nerves- 12 pairs from T1-T12
Lumbar nerves- 5 pairs from L1-L5
Sacral nerves- 5 pairs from S1-S5
Coccygeal nerves- 1 pair
Term
Explain what a plexus is and where they occur, which nerves do not occur like this?
Definition
Axons that first join to make networks before going to structure they will innervate, which are called plexuses.

They occur in the cervical, brachial, lumbar, sacral and coccygeal plexuses.
The thoracic nerves are the only nerves that go directly structures they supply in the inter coastal muscles. These are called the inter coastal or thoracic nerves.
Term
Cervical plexuses-
Definition
they consist of C1-C4 and they innervate skin, muscles of the head, neck and superior part of the shoulders and chest.
Term
Brachial plexuses
Definition
They consist of C5-C8 and T1 which supply the shoulders and upper limbs. They consist of the axillary nerve, musculocutaneous nerve, median nerve, radial nerve, and ulnar nerve.
Term
Lumbar plexuses
Definition
L1- L4 and they supply the anterolateral abdominal wall, external genitals and part of the lower limbs.
Term
Sacral plexuses
Definition
Consist of L4-L5 and S1-S4. They supply the buttocks, perineum and lower limbs.
Term
Describe dermatomes
Definition
The skin over the entire body is up plied by somatic sensory neurons that carry nerve impulses from the skin into the spinal cord and brain stem.

Each spinal nerve contains sensory neurons that serve a specific perceptible segment of the body.

The area of the skin that provides sensory input to the CNS viz one pair of spinal nevers is called a dermatome.
Term
Define nerve fibre, endoneurium, perineurium, fasciuli, and epineruium.
Definition
Nerve fibre- the axon and its associated glial cells
Endoneurium- mesh of collagen fibres, fibroblasts, and macrophages that surrounds nerve fibres.

Perineurium- a thicker stealth of connective tissue that packages groups of never fibres together into fascicle.

Epinerurium- Outer connective sheath that boundless all the fasiculi together
Term
What is the difference between the function of grey and white matter
Definition
Grey matter- receives and integrates incoming and outgoing information

White matter- highways for nerve impulse propagations
Term
What is the difference between a spinal reflex and cranial reflex
Definition
Spinal reflex- integration takes place in the spinal cord grey matter

cranial reflex- integration takes place in the brain grey matter
Term
Explain the 5 steps of the patellar reflex (knee)
Definition
1.Sensory receptor- distal end of a sensory neuron serves as a sensory receptor
2.Sensory neuron- nerve impulses conduct form the sensory receptor along the axon of a sensory neuron to its axon terminals, whciha re located in the CNS grey matter.
3.Integrating centre- oen or more regions of grey matter in the CNS acts as an integrating centre.
4.Motor neuron- impulses triggered by the integrating centre pass out of the spinal cord along a motor neuron to the part of the body that will respond.
5.Effector- part of the body the responds to the motor nerve impulse, such as a muscle or gland, is the effector.
Term
What are the four major areas of the brain?
Definition
1.Brain stem- consists ofmedulla onlongata, pons and midbrain

2.Cerebellum

3.Dicencephalon- consist of the thalamus, hypothalamus and epithalamus

4.Cerebrum- largest part of the brain
Term
Cranial meninges- what are the three layers
Definition
The outer durmater, the middle arachnoid mater and inner pia mater.
Term
Where are the four ventricles located in the brain?
Definition
1.Two lateral ventricles
2.Along the midline
3.Lies between the brain stem and cerebellum
Term
What are the three function of the cerebral spinal fluid?
Definition
1.Mechaincal protection- shock absorbing for spinal cord and brain

2.Chemical protection- Provides an optimal environment for accurate neuronal signalling neurons.
Term
Medulla oblongata- What is its functions

What are the five pairs of nerves associated with the medulla
Definition
It contains the cardiovascular centre, medullary rhythmicity area, and controls reflexs for vomiting, counting and sneezing. There is also nuclei associated with sensations of touch, conscious proprioception, pressure and vibration.

1.Vestibulocochlear- receive sensory input from and provide motor output to the cochlea of the internal ear biz the cochlear branches of the vestibularocohlear nerves.

2.Glossopharyngeal nerve- sensory and motor impulses related to tastes, swallowing, and salivation

3.Vagus- motor impulses to the pharynx and larynx and many thoracic and abdominal viscera via the nerves

4.ACcessory nerves- impulses that control swallowing via the cranial portion of the accessory nerve

5.Hypoglossal- control tongue movement during speech and swallowing
Term
Pons- what is its function and what are the 4 nerves
Definition
Controls breathing

1.Trigeminal- receives sensory impulses for somatic from the head and face and provide motor impulses that govern chewing

2.Abducens- motor impulses that control eyeball movement

3.Facial nerves- receive sensory information for taste and provide motor impulses to regulate secretion of saliva and tears and contraction of muscles of facial expressions

4.Vestibularocular- sensory impulses from and provide motor impulses to the vestibular apparatus
Term
Midbrain: what are its functions and what two nerves is it associated with?
Definition
Control reflexes for visual activities, movement of eyes, head and necks, and auditory pathways.

It is associated with
1.Oculomotor- control movements of the eyeball
2.Trochlear- control movements of the eyeball
Term
Cerebellum: function
Definition
The primary function is to evaluate how well movements are being carried out. It also regulates posture and balance, and may also have non motor functions such as cognition and language processing.
Term
Thalamus: function
Definition
major relay station for most sensory impulses that reach the primary sensory areas of the cerebral cortex from the spinal cord, brain stan and midbrain.

Contributes to motor functions by transmitting information from the cerebellum and basal ganglia to the primary motor area of the cerebral cortex.
Term
What are the 6 functions of the hypothalamus
Definition
Overall it controls the bodies homeostasis

1.COntrol of the ANS- controls and integrates activities of the ANS which regulates contraction of smooth and cardiac muscle and secretion of glands.

2.Production of hormones-

3.Regulation of emotional and behavioural patterns

4.Regulation of eating and drinking- through arcuate and paracetrivular nuclei.

5.Control of body temperature

6.Regulation of circadian rhythms and states of consciousness
Term
Epithalamus: Function q
Definition
Consists of the pineal gland and habenular nuclei.

Pineal gland produces melatonin which is produced during darkness and promotes sleepiness.

Habenular nuclei- involved in olfaction
Term
What are the two things of the limbic system and what are their functions
Definition
It controls range of emotions, olfaction and memory.
Term
Explain the 5 sensory areas of the cerebral cortex
Definition
1.Primary somatosensory sensory
2.Primary visual area
3.Primary auditory area
4.Primary gustatory area
5.Primary olfactory area
Term
Explain the 2 motor areas of the cerebral cortex
Definition
1.Primary motor area

2.Brocas's speech area
Term
Explain the 8 association areas of the cerebral cortex
Definition
1.Somatosensory association-
2.Prefrontal cortex
3.Visual assocaited
4.Auditory
5.Wernickes areas- translate thoughts
6.Common integrative area-
7.Premotor area
8.frontal eye field
Term
Hemispheric laterialization
Definition
Physiological differences exist between two hemispheres, and function asymmetry is termed hemispheric lateralization
Term
Describe EEG
Definition
nerve impulses generated by neurons are recorded onto a EEG
Term
Olfactory nerve (cranial)
Definition
conduct nerve impulses for olfaction
Term
Otic nerve (cranial)
Definition
COntaons axons that conduct nerve impulses for vision
Term
Oculomotor nerve (cranial)
Definition
motor cranial nerve
Term
Trochlear nerve (cranial nerve)
Definition
motor cranial nerve, movement of the eyeball
Term
Trigeminal nerve (cranial)
Definition
consists of ophthalmic never, maxillary, and mandibular nerve
Term
Abducens nerve (cranial nerve)
Definition
movement of the eyeball
Term
Facial nerve (cranial)
Definition
propioceptors of muscles of the face and scalp and from skin in the ear
Term
Vestibulocochlear nerve-
Definition
vestibular- balance
cohlear- hearing
Term
Glossopharynheal nerve (cranial)
Definition
tastebuds and for swallowing
Term
Vagus nerve (cranial)
Definition
distributed through the head and neck, thorax and abdomen.
Term
Vagus nerve (cranial)
Definition
distributed through the head and neck, thorax and abdomen.
Term
Accessory nerves (cranial)
Definition
part of the vagus nerve. Conveys motor impulses to the sternocleidomastoid and trapexius muscles to coordinate head moevemnst.
Term
Hypoglossal nerve (cranial)
Definition
motor cranial nerve for speech and swallowing
Term
Where does the nervous system develop from?
Definition
The ectoderm which develops into the neural plate.
Term
Where does the nervous system develop from?
Definition
The ectoderm which develops into the neural plate.
Term
What are the three divisions of of the autonomic
Definition
Sympathetic, Parasympathetic, and Enteric
Term
What is the difference between CNS and PNS
Definition
CNS- brain and spinal cord

PNS- nerves (cranial, spinal and peripheral), specialized nerve endings and ganglia
Term
What is the difference between somatic and autonomic
Definition
Somatic- provides sensory and motor innervation to all parts of the body (except visceral, smooth muscle and glands)

Autonomic- provides innervation to smooth muscle, heart and glands and receives sensory innervation from the viscera (pain and reflexes). Subdivided into sympathetic, parasympathetic and enteric.
Term
Sympathetic: explain the release of ACh, and release of noreepinphrine from adrenal medulla.
Definition
Axon ends and connects with ganglion to release ACH, and then sympathetic nerve travels to the organ it will innervate.

Also will innervate the adrenal medulla of chromafin cells, that will release norepinephrine to cause vasocontristion or dilation.
Term
Where are autonomic plexuses distributed around the body?
Definition
They are distributes around various visceral organs.
Term
Somatic Sensory: What are the two pathways
Definition
1.Posterior coloumn
2.Antereolateral coloumn
Term
Somatic motor cortex: What parts of the body contain the most area of the cortex and why
Definition
The face (especially lips) and hands are largely represented on the cortex because the most intricate movements that we do is through these parts.
Term
Olfaction: What does it have and what cranial nerve is it innervated through?
Definition
Includes cranial olfactory nerve. Modified neural epithelial cells will make the olfactory nerve with their axons and travel to the primary olfactory part of the cortex.
Term
Gustatory: What does the tongue contain and what three cranial nerves are involved?
Definition
The tongue has various pill, and uses three cranial nerves (vagus, glossopheal and facial), which all get sent to the primary gustatory cortex.
Term
Vision: what are the three cells of the eye, and what do they connect to? What produces the ophthalmic nerve?
Definition
Retinas had first (rods and cones), second (bipolar cells) which then connect to retinal ganglia cells. Rods and Cones are 1st to see light, and then send it to bipolar cells.

The axons of the ganglia cells will make the ophthalmic nerve, which will end in the primary visual area.
Term
Hearing and Equilibrium: Where are the located? What does the middle ear contain? What does the cochlear have for hearing? What cranial nerve is it associated with?
Definition
Hearing and equilibrium are both located in the inner ear. The middle ear contains the three ossicles that transmit sound.

Inner ear contain cochlea that is semicircular canals, which have hair cells that tells us where our body is and then send it to the brain. Cochlear has hairs specific for hearing.

The cranial nerve associated with hearing and equilibrium is the vestibular cochlear never (cranial number 8).
Term
What is the function of the endocrine system? How do hormones work
Definition
-produces hormones that go directly to the blood stream

-for each hormone there is a particular receptor for each hormone that are one particular cell, that allows it to be specialized.
Term
What is the function of the pineal gland?
Definition
To produce melatonin
Term
What is the function of the hypothalamus? How are pituitary and hypothalamus regulated?
Definition
Regulates the pituitary by releasing releasing hormones. Pituitary and hypothalamus are regulated by negative feedback.
Term
Posterior pituitary and anterior pituitary hormones
Definition
Posterior pituitary- releases vasopressin (antidiruetic hormone) and oxytocin (uterus relaxant)

Anterior pituitary- releases hGH (human godotrophin hormone), TSH (thyroid stimulating hormone), FSH (follicle stimulating hormone), LH (lutienzing hormone), PRL (prolactin), ACTH (adrenalcorticoid hormone), MSH (melanocyte-stimulating hormone)

LH= lutinizing hormone= ovulation in ovaries and promootes leydig cells in testes to secrete testosterone.

FSH= Stimulates ovaries and testes
Term
Thyroid gland- what is it stimulated by and what does it release?

What are the functions of T3/T4 and calcitonin?

How many parathyroid glands are there?
Definition
Thyroid gland gets stimulated by TSH and produces T3/T4 and calcitonin which is produced by C-cells.

Clacitionin regulates calcium in the body and T3/T4 regulates metabolism in the body.

There are 4 parathyroid glands.
Term
Adrenal gland- What are the three layers of the cortex?
Definition
1.Adrenal glomerulus- secretes mineral corticosteriods (aldosterone)

2.Zona Fasculitulata- produces cortisol, glucocorticoids, steriods, glycogen storage in liver

3.Zona Reticularis- Secretes androgens
Term
Pancreas- What are its two parts?
Definition
It has the exocrine part (secretes enzymes to GI) and an endocrine part (releases insulin)
Term
Explain the flow of blood through the heart
Definition
1.Superior vena vava (upper part of the body) and inferior vena cava (lower part of the body) bring blood to the right atrium. Also collects blood from the heart itself.

2.Right ventrciel

3.Pulmonary vein to the lung

4.Returns to the left atrium

5.Left ventricle

6.Distributed to the rest of the body through the aorta.
Term
What are the electrical cells of the heart? What is the flow of electrical activity in the heart? What is an ECG?
Definition
Purkinje cells- make sure the contractions of the different part of the heart are occurring in the correct order.

An ECG is the measure of electrical activity in the heart.

Electrical activity flow;
1)SA node (pacemaker of the heart), where the electrical signal begins.

2.AV node

3.Bundle of HIS
Term
Cardiac muscle: how are they connected?
Definition
cardiac muscle is not striated and the cells are not fused.

They communicate through inter collated discs (which can only be seen by TEM). Also have adhesive junctions and demosomes that connect the cells. The gap junctions are what allow the information to be spread from cell to cell.
Term
Purjinke fibres- what ar ether and what do they control?
Definition
They are modified cardiomyocytes with lots of collagen and fibre that allows electrical signals to be transmitted.
Term
What does the para and sympathetic innervation control in the heart?
Definition
They control the heart rate and the strength of the heart rate.
Term
Explain the function of the adhesive junctions, desmonsomes, and gap junctions
Definition
Adhesive junctions- anchorage of the cells

Desmosomes- binding of the cells

Gap junctions- ionic continuity, functional syncytium.
Term
Cardiac conducting system

Where are the parasympathetic and sympathetic endings located?
Definition
Specialized cardiac muscle cells that are the AV and SA node, and Purkinje fibres.

They are located in the nodes.
Term
What are the four valves of the heart?
Definition
Mitral valve (bicuspid)- lies between the left ventricle and atria

Atriventricular (tricuspid)- lies between the right ventricle and atria

Aortia valves- lies between the left ventricle and aortal

Pulmonary valves- lies between the right ventricle and pulmonary artery
Term
What are the three circulations
Definition
Pulmonary, systemic and coronary
Term
What three arteries empty into the right atrium?
Definition
The coronary sinus, superior and inferior vena cava
Term
What three arteries empty into the right atrium?
Definition
The coronary sinus, superior and inferior vena cava
Term
What are the layers of the medium macular arteries?

What are the vasculature and nervous supply to BV this size?
Definition
1.Tunica interna- endothelial and then internal elastic lamina
2.Tunica media- smooth muscle layers (40 in this artery)
3.External elastic lamina- consists of tunica adventitia is the collagen connective tissue

Vasa vasorum- is the blood supply to the arteries
Nervi vasorium- nervous supply to the arteries
Term
Layers of Large elastic arteries
Definition
1.Tunica interna-contains an internal elastic lamina
2.Tunica media- different from the medium because it has a lot of layers of elastic
3.Tunica externa
Term
Layers of Large elastic arteries
Definition
1.Tunica interna-contains an internal elastic lamina
2.Tunica media- different from the medium because it has a lot of layers of elastic
3.Tunica externa
Term
6 functions of the endothelial
Definition
1.Permeability- barrier for selective molecules (triglycerides, cholesterol)

2.Antithrombogenic- barrier, coagulation

3.Blood flow- resistance modulator for angiotensis I and II

4.Immune response- vas active factors (histamine)

5.Hormonal- producer of hormones (growth factors)

6.Lipoproteins- modifier (athlersclerotic plaques)
Term
How many layers of smooth muscle do small arteries and arterioles have?
Definition
Small arteries have 8-10 layers

Arterioles have 1-2 layers
Term
Capillaries- what do they have in their tissues? what are the two different types of capillaries?
Definition
Capillaries can only be seen by TEM because they are so small.

Capillaries have epithelial tissue, but have no smooth muscle.

1.Continuous capillaries- present in muscle with endothelial that has no holes.

2.Fenestrated- present in kidneys where the endothelial has holes.
Term
What are the four different types of microcirculation?
Definition
1.Usual- arterial and venule side connected by one continuous capillary with pre capillary sphincter.

2.AV shunt- capillary continuous from arteriole to venule where there is no sphincter

3.Glomerular- many capillary loops that produces urine in kidney.

4.Sinusoids- found in liver, gets the venous blood from the gut to receive everything we ate, goes through sinusoid capillary, gets taken care of hemaptocytes, and then gets sent back through the portal system.
Term
Veins: Where are the three different sizes of veins located?
Definition
Large- subclaven and venae cava
Medium- legs
Small- venule
Term
How are layers of the veins different from arteries?
Definition
The media is thin and the adventitia layer is the thicker layer (thicker than in arteries).

Veins also have valves that help bring the blood back up to the upper body.
Term
Hepatic portal system-
Definition
Venosystem collects blood form the GI, all blood will end up in the portal system which is why the liver will receive the venous blood from the GI. They blood goes into inferior vena cava and then back to the heart.
Term
Hepatic portal system-
Definition
Venosystem collects blood form the GI, all blood will end up in the portal system which is why the liver will receive the venous blood from the GI. They blood goes into inferior vena cava and then back to the heart.
Term
Explain what blood is made up of
Definition
1.Blood plasma (55%)- 91.5% water and 7% proteins (albumins, globulins, fibrinogen, all others), and 1.5% of other solutes.

2.Formed elements (45%)- made up of platelets, white blood cells (neutrophils, lymphocytes, monocytes, eosionophils, and basophils), and red blood cells.
Term
What are the 4 lymphatic organs?
Definition
1.Lymphoid nodules- accumulation of white blood cells through the body, and diffuse lymphocytes found in tonsils, Peyer's patches of the ileum, and vermiform appendix.

2.Thymus- where the T cells are located

3.Lymph nodes- generates cells according to the bodies need (lymphatic)

4.Spleen- generates cells according to bodies need (blood)
Term
Explain the function of lymph nodes and the different parts

What does the medullary cord and sinus contain?
Definition
Distributed all over the body that serve to filter lymph. Receives lymph through afferent vessels, filters through sinuses and then exits through efferent valves.

Lymph nodes will determine if there are antigens then produce B cells to make plasmid cells then to make antibodies.

1.Capsule- covering of the lymph node
2.Nodule- contains the B and T cells
3.Sinuses- for taking the lymph into and out of the lymph node
4.Trabeculae- layers of connective tissue

The medullary cord contains plasma cells and lymphocytes, and the medullar sinus contains macrophages and reticular cell.
Term
Spleen: What is its function, and what is the trabeculae, white pulp and red pulp?
Definition
Does the same thing as lymph nodes but filters the blood and not the lymph.

Blood enters the spleen through the splenic artery, which will be covers by PALS (peripheral arterial lymphocyte Sheath) that have many T cells that monitor blood.

Also has germinative centre that can product the T and B cells (nodule in the spleen is the same as the nodule in the lymph node, to make B cells).

Spleen also destructs RBCs, has a structure to prevent RBCs to not go through.

Trabeculae are fibrous bands in the spleen. Red pulp is made up of platelets, RBCs, and white pulp is made up of lymphocytes. The white pulp contains the germinative layer which produces B cells.
Term
What is lymphatic tissue and what are its three functions?
Definition
IT is a specialized form of reticular connective tissue.

1.Drains excess interstitial fluid
2.Transports dietary lipids
3.Carries out immune responses
Term
What is the overall function of T cells and B cells?
Definition
T cells- destroy intruders by causing them to rupture or release cytotoxic substances.

B-cells- differentiate into plasma cells that produce antibodies.
Term
Explain the general flow of lymph

What are lymph nodes?
Definition
1.Lymphatic capillaries
2.Lymphastic vessels
3.Lymph nodes

Lymph nodes are encapsulated masses of T and B cells
Term
What are lacteals?
Definition
located in the smell intestine, specialized lymphatic capillaries called lacteals carry dietary lipids into lymphatic vessels and ultimately to the blood.
Term
What is a lymph trunk?
Definition
As lymphatic vessels exit lymph nodes in a particular region of the body, they unit to form lymph nodes.
Term
What are the two ways the body maintains the flow of lymph?
Definition
1.Skeletal muscle pump
2.Respiratory pump
Term
Define primary lymphatic organs and what they consist of
Definition
Sites where stem cells divide and become immunocompetent, that is, capable of mounting an immune response. The primary lymphatic organs are the red bone marrow and the thymus
Term
Thymus: What is the capsule, trabeculae, cortex, and medulla
Definition
Capsule- an envelope of connective tissue that holds the two lobes closely together

Trabeculae- divide the each lobe into lobules

Cortex- composed of large numbers of T cells and scattered dendritic, epithelial, and macrophages. Immature T cells migrate from red bone marrow to the cortex of the thymus, where the proliferate and begin to mature.

Medulla- Consists of widely scattered and more mature T cells, epithelial cells, dendritic cells and macrophages.
Term
Lymph nodes: What is the capsule, trabeculae, outer cortex, inner cortex and medulla?

Explain the flow of lymph through the nodes
Definition
Capsule- nodes are covered by dense connective tissue. Capsular extensions are called trabeculae that divide the node into compartments, give support and provide a route for blood vessels.

Outer cortex- aggregates of B cells called lymphatic nodules.

Inner cortex- Does not contain lymphatic nodules, instead consists mainly of T cells and dendritic cells.

Medulla- Lymph node that contains B cells.

Lymph flows throgh a lymph node in one direction only, starting with the afferent lymphatic vessels, within the node it goes through sinuses (sub capsular, trabecular, and medullary), and then the medullary sinuses drain into one or two efferent lymphatic vessels.
Term
Spleen: What is the capsule, white pulp, red pulp, and what are the three functions of the red pulp?
Definition
Capsule- has a capsule of dense connective tissue, with a serous membrane.

White pulp- consist mostly of lymphocytes and macrophages.

Red pulp- consist of blood filled sinuses.

Functions of red pulp:
1.Removal by macrophages of ruptured, worn out, or defective blood cells and platelets
2.Stroage of platelets
3.Production of blood cells
Term
What are lymphatic nodules, where are they found and what is their other name?
Definition
They are egg-shaped masses of lymphatic tissue that are not surrounded by a capsule.

They are scattered throughout lamina propria (connective tissue) of mucous membranes lining the GI, urinary, reproductive and respiratory tracts.

They are also called mucosa-assocaited lymphatic tissue (MALT).
Term
What are the three sections of the grey horn white matter?
Definition
1.Anterior (ventral) white columns
2.Posterior (dorsal) white columns
3.Lateral white columns
Term
Where do the pyramids originate and travel through? What happens at the medulla?
Definition
The pyramids originate at the cerebrum, pass through the medulla and through the spinal cord. The pyramids cross over at the medulla "decussation of pyramids".
Term
What is the difference between free nerve endings, encapsulated nerve endings
Definition
Free nerve endings are receptors for pain, thermal, tickle, itch and some touch sensations.

Encapsulated nerve endings are for pressure, vibration, and some touch sensations.
Term
What is the difference between first, second and third order neurons?
Definition
First- conduct impulses from somatic receptors into the brain stem or spinal cord.

2.Second- conduct impulses from the brain stem and spinal cord to the thalamus or cerebellum..

3.Third- conduct impulses from the thalamus to the primary somatosensory area of the cortex on the same side.
Term
Posterior Column- Medial Lemniscus Pathway to the cortex: Describe what sensations it conveys and its pathway
Definition
First order neurons extend from sensory receptors in the trunk and limbs into the spinal cord and ascend to the medulla oblongata on the same side of the body. Axons synapse with second order neurons in the medulla, cross to the other side and enter the medial lemniscus, and then synapses with third order neurons in the thalamus.

It conveys fine touch, stergnosis (recognize shape), proprioception (awareness of position of the body), vibratory sensations.
Term
Anterolateral pathways to the cortex: Explain the pathway and the type of sensations it conveys
Definition
First order neurons connect with a receptor of the neck, trunk or free limbs with the spinal cord. They synapse with second order neurons located in the posterior gray horn of the spinal cord. These will cross to the opposite side of the spinal cord, then they pass upward to the brain stem in either the lateral spinaothalamic tract or the anterior spinaothalamc tract.

The later spinothalamic tract conveys sensory impulses for pain and temperature.

The anterior impulses for tickle, itch, crude touch, pressure and vibrations.
Term
Define the location of the primary somatosensory area
Definition
Occupies the post central gyri of the parietal loves of the cerebral cortex.
Term
Defien lower motor neurons

What groups of neurons innervate them?
Definition
Part of the somatic motor pathways who's cells bodies are located in the brain stem and spinal cord, and their axons extend from the motor nuclei of the cranial nerves to the skeletal muscles of the face and head and from the anterior tray horns of all levels of the spinal cord to the skeletc muscles of the limbs and trunks.

1.Local circuit neurons- input arrives at LMN from nearby interneurons called local circuit neurons.

2.Upper motor neruons- both local circuit neurons and LMN receive input from UMN.

3.Basal gnaglia nuerons- assist movement by providing input through the thalamus to UMN.

4.Cerebellar neurons- aid in movements by controlling the activity of UMN through the thalamus.
Term
Explain the direct motor pathway (pyramidal)
Definition
Never impulses for voluntary movements propagate from the cerebral cortex to LMN via pyramidal pathway. These pathways consist of lateral corticosinal tracts, anterior corticopinal tracts, corticobulbar tracts
Term
Explain the indirect motor pathways (extrapyramidal)
Definition
include all other somatic motor tracts other than the corticospinal and corticobulbar. These consist of rubrospinal, tectospinal, vestibulospinal, lateral reticular spinal, medial reticulospinal.
Term
what is the function of the basal ganglia for movement?
Definition
major role in initiation and termination of movements, suppresses unwanted movement by their inhibitory effects on the thalamus, influences muscle tone
Term
Roles of cerebellum
Definition
Monitors intetions for movement by receiving impulses from the motor cortex and basal ganglia,
-monitors actual movement by receiving input from proprioceptors in joints and muscles,
-compares the command signals with the sensory information.
-if there is a discrepancy then it will fix it.
Term
Olfaction: What are the olfactory receptors, olfactory hairs, supporting cells, basal cells, olfactory glands

What cranial nerve does it have
Definition
Olfactory receptors- first order neurons of the olfactory pathway

Olfactory hairs- cilia that project from the dendrite

Supporting cells- columnar epithelial cells of the mucous membrane lining the nose

Basal cells- located between the supporting, continually undergo cell division to produce new cells.

Olfactory bowmans glands- produce mucus that is carried to the surface of the epithelial by ducts.

Olfactory nerves go into the olfactory jul;b, and then to the olfactory tract and then finally to the primary olfactory area in the frontal lobe.
Term
Gustation: what is the taste bud, supporting cells, basal cells

Gustatory pathway and the nerves that innervate the tongue
Definition
Taste bud- us an oval body consist of three types of epithelial cells: supporting cells, gustatory cells, and basal cells.

Supporting cells- contain minrocvilli and surround receptor cells

Basal cells- stem cells

The facial nerve and glossopharyngeal nerve are for the tongue, and the vagus nerve serves the epiglottis and throat.
From the taste buds they travel to the medulla, to the limbic system and thalamus, and then the primary gustatory areas of the parietal lobe.
Term
What do rods and cones allow us to see?
Definition
Rods allow us to see black and white, and cones allow us to see colour
Term
What do rods and cones allow us to see?
Definition
Rods allow us to see black and white, and cones allow us to see colour
Term
explain the pathway of vision to the brain
Definition
chemicals released by rods and cones induce changes in both bipolar cells and horizontal cells that lead to the generation of nerve impulses. Ganglion cells eventually transmit nerve impulses. The axons of the optic nerve pass through the optic chasm, crossing point of the optic nerve. After passing the optic chasm the fibres, now part of the optic tract, enter the brain and termite in the thalamus. Finall they will end in the primary visual areas in the occipital lobes.
Term
What is the located in the outer, middle and inner ear?

What are the sequence of hearing in the ear to the brain?
Definition
The outer ear consist of the pinna, the external ear canal and the tympanic membrane.

The middle ear consist of the three auditory ossicles, and is separated by the inner ear from the oval and round window.

Inner ear consists of the semicircular canals, and the cochlea

-sound waves hit tympanic membrane
-malleus vibrates the incus and then the stapes
-the stapes will hit the oval wind and then the round wind
-endolymph is moved in the inner ear
-basial hairs will move in the tectorial membrane.
-never impulses are passed to the vestinbulocochlear nerve, to the medulla oblongata, to the thalamus and then finally the primary auditory area of the cerebral cortex of the temporal lobe
Term
What is the function of PTH
Definition
increase the number and activity of osteoclasts, which realists in electvated bone resorption.
Term
adrenal cortex: layers and what they secrete
Definition
zona glomerulosa- secrete mineral corticoids

zona fasciculata- secrete glucocorticoids

zona reticularis- secrete androgens
Term
what does the adrenal medulla produce?
Definition
produces norepinephrine and epinephrine
Term
Pancreas: What does islet of langerhans secrete?
Definition
Is part of the endocrine.

consists of:
A cells- secretes glycogen
B cells- secretes insulin
D cells- somatostatin
F cells- pancreatic polypeptide
Term
what four hormones do ovaries produce and what do testes produce?
Definition
ovaries produce estrogens, progesterone, inhibin, relaxin

testes produce testosterone
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