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Anatomy II
Test 2: Immunology, respiration, digestion, metabolism
215
Biology
Undergraduate 2
04/16/2008

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Term
Fungi
Definition
___ are absorbitive heterotrophs (digest outside their body)
Term
Invaders that are nucleic acid surrounded by protein capsule
Definition
Viruses are not living cells but ____
Term
Bacteria, fungi, small animals (eg parasitic worms), viruses, toxins
Definition
5 types of antigens
Term
RBCs
Definition
Self markers are found on all cells except
Term
Antigen
Definition
Non-self molecule or organism recognized by immune system as such
Term
Major histocompatibility complex
Definition
MHCI stands for
Term

1. Phagocytes (consume things w/ no markers)

2. Skin

3. Mucous in respiratory tract

4. Acid in stomach

5. Acidic secretions from vagina

Definition
5 non-specific immune responses
Term
MHC
Definition
We have ___ markers on our cells to identify them as "self"
Term
ribosome
Definition
Proteins are manufactured in the
Term
endoplasmic reticulum
Definition
Proteins are packaged for exocytosis in the ____
Term
B cells and T cells
Definition
2 types of lymphocytes
Term
presenter cell
Definition
When a phagocyte eats a foreign substance it becomes a _______
Term

food vacuole

digested fragments of the antigen

MHCII markers

Definition
Phagocytes digest antigens in their ______ & puts ______ on its surface in _____
Term
immune receptors
Definition
Mature lymphocytes possess ______ that match with antigens
Term
the B cells' immune receptors match the presenter cells' MHCII markers that have the foreign protein fragments incorporated
Definition
B cells become activated B cells when
Term

divide repeatedly clones

immune receptors specific to that antigen

Definition
Once B cells activate, they _____ to form _____, which have ______
Term

plasma cells

make billions of copies of immune receptors & put them into blood & lymph as antibodies

Definition
When B cells mature they become _____, which ______
Term
Receptors attach to markers on antigen, coating it, slowing it down, which encourages phagocytosis
Definition
Antibodies _______ and encourage _____
Term
Opsonization
Definition
_____ is when antibodies coat antigens
Term
presented with antigen fragments
Definition
Helper T-cells become activated when
Term
cytokines which attract macrophages
Definition
Helper T cells secrete ______ which _____
Term
apoptosis
Definition
Programmed cell death is ____
Term
viral infections but not bacterial ones
Definition
Cytotoxic t-cells are involved in ____ but not _____
Term
webbed fingers
Definition
During development, apoptosis is needed to get rid of _____
Term
apoptosis in corrupted cells
Definition
Cytotoxic t-cells initiate ______ in _______
Term
Selection of B cells has occured; each generation of B cells's immune receptors are a better fit for the antigen markers
Definition
Antibodies have good match for antigen markers because
Term

4 strands, 2 heavy and 2 light,

disulfate bond

Definition
An antibody has _____ strands of protein, ____ and ____, held together by ______
Term
base of the Y
Definition
The macrophage binding sites is located at the _______ of an antibody
Term

Base

Ends

Definition

_____ of heavy and light chains are constant,

_____ of the chains are variable

Term

1. Neutralization (blocks virus binding sites, coats bacteria)

2. Agglutination (clumping together of antigens)

3. Precipitation of soluble antigens

(1-3 trigger opsonization, thus enchancing phagocytosis)

4. Complement fixation (works on celluler antigen eg bacteria not virus, complement proteins in blood activate and make hole in bacteria's cell membrane, lysing the cell)

Definition
4 aspects of antibody function
Term
memory b-cells and memory t-cells
Definition
After infection, _____ and ____ remain for faster response in case of future reinfection
Term
Active immunity
Definition
If you have _____, then you possess memory B and T cells for that antigen, thus can kill the antigens off quickly before you get sick
Term
stimulate cytotoxic T cells and B cells need chemicals produced by helper T cells
Definition
Helper T -cells help ____ and ____
Term
MHCI antigens on cell
Definition
Cytotoxic T cells eliminate body cells when its immune receptors detect _____
Term
Passive immunity
Definition
______ is passed down from mother to offspring to fight off antigens
Term
gamaglobulin and immunoglobulin (Ig)
Definition
Two other names for antibody
Term

variable part of chain

light part of chain

Definition
In antibodies, millions of shapes are possible for the ______ and only six different constant regions representing six different Igs are located _____
Term
IgM and then IgG (after about a week)
Definition
First two Igs secreted w/ first exposure to antigen
Term
IgA
Definition
Ig found in milk and saliva
Term
IgD
Definition
Ig found in small #s, constant region for B-cell immune receptor
Term
IgE
Definition
Ig involved in inflammation and allergies
Term
IgG
Definition
Upon second time exposure to an antigen, this is produced right away
Term

mast cell membranes

WBCs moved out of blood into tissue membranes,

histamines, dilation & inflammation (brings in more WBCs) 

Definition
IgE insert themselves into _____, which are ______, and they secrete ______, which causes ______
Term

300 copies

20

6

5

Definition

V segment has ___ copies for variable regions of heavy chain,

D-segment has ___

J-segment has ____

Constant has _____ 

Term

36,000 (300x20x6)

1,200

 4.32x107

Definition

_____ possible combos for variable H chain

____ combos for variable L chain

Total possible combos 

Term

Red bone marrow

bone marrow

thymus gland 

Definition

B & T cells form in ____

B cells mature in _____

T cells mature in ___ 

Term

Dendritic cells, Macrophages & b cells

MHCII 

Definition

______, ____ and ____ can be presenter cells

Presenter cells have _____ proteins to activate helper T cells 

Term
CD4
Definition
Helper Tcells have ___ protein that allows them to bind to presenter cells
Term

CD8

MHCI,   cell surfaces 

Definition
Cytotoxic T-cells have ____ proteins that attach to _____ proteins on _____
Term

Interleukin 1 (a cytokine), helper T-cells

Interleukin 2, cytotoxic t-cells & b-cells 

Definition
Macrophages give off ____, that activates ____, which give off _____ that acts on ____ & ____
Term
Monocytes
Definition
____ leave blood to enter tissue spaces & lymph to become macrophages
Term

1. microglia

2. alveolar macrophages

3. histocytes

4. Kupfer cells 

Definition

Names of site specific phagocytes:

1. in CNS

2. in lungs

3. in spleen & lymph nodes

4. in liver 

Term
Diapedesis
Definition
Passage of white blood cells through intact capillary pores into tissue
Term
Chemotaxis
Definition
The movement of a phagocyte toward an inflammed area, following the concentration levels
Term

Interferons

cause neighboring cells to interfere w/ viral replication & act as nonspecific stimulus for macrophages 

Definition
____ are given off by body cells that are infected by a virus.  These cause _____
Term

Natural killer cells

immune receptors,  MHCI markers on cell is abnormal or absent 

Definition
_____ cells are non-specific cell destroyers (have no ______.  They do so if ______
Term
A, B, AB, O (no surface marker)
Definition
4 different blood types:
Term

Type A= anti-B antibody

Type B= anti-A antibody

Type AB = no antibodies

Type O = anti-A and anti-B 

Definition
Antibodies present for each blood type
Term

Rh

Rh- (aka A-)

Rh+ (aka A+)

Definition
_____ marker can cause problem for mothers & fetuses if mother is ___ and first and second fetus are _____
Term
erythroblastosis fetalis
Definition
When anti-Rh antibodies cross placenta & attack fetal RBCs
Term
Rhogam
Definition
___ is given to A- mothers w/ A+ fetuses to suppress immune response to baby
Term
Diphtheria
Definition
Horse blood was used to treat this sickness
Term

Basophils & mast cells, histamine release,

relaxation, constriction

bronchioles 

Definition
_____ & ____ cause which causes ______ in smooth muscles of arterioles and _____ in smooth muscles of ______
Term

less, less

more fluid movement 

Definition
Dilation causes _____ resistance & ____ pressure, allowing
Term
Pus
Definition
____ is the accumulation of WBCs, mostly macrophages
Term
IgE
Definition
Histamine is released when ____ on mast cells react w/ pathogen
Term

1. High pressure to localize (keep blood there)

2. Allow WBCs to attack specific location 

Definition

Swelling of an infection allows for:

1.

2. 

Term

IL-4

IgE

IgG 

Definition
An allergen causes T-helper cells to secrete ____, which stimulates B-cells to make ____ rather than _____
Term
histamine by mast cells and B-cells
Definition
An overproduction of ____ by ______ is produced in an allergic reaction
Term
Anaphylaxis
Definition
Systemic allergic reaction causing dangerously low BP (b/c of vasodilation in all vessels)
Term
Asthma
Definition
Occurs when severe vasodilation of smooth muscles causes vasoconstriction in smooth muscles in airways
Term
autoimmunity
Definition
When cells are not recognized as self and are attacked by own immune system
Term
Diabetes Type I, pancreas
Definition
Disease marked by early onset in childhood, lowered insulin production, T cells attack of ____ cells
Term
Hepatitis B
Definition
Disease marked by t-lymphocytes killing liver cells infected with a virus
Term
Tuberculosis
Definition
Disease marked by infection of lungs by bacteria & macrophages end up killing lung cells
Term
the disease quickly mutates, such as sleeping sickness
Definition
Sick/well cycles during an illness usually means that
Term

1. T-dependent antigens

2. T-independent antigens 

Definition

1. Need T-cells for response

2. Vigorous response w/o T-helper cells 

Term

1. Ventilation (bulk flow)

2. External respiration (diffusion)

3. Circulation (bulk flow)

4. Internal respiration (diffusion)

Definition
Respiratory gases are moved in 4 steps:
Term
lungs
Definition
All airway structures below the trachea are called the ___
Term
Nose/nasal passage (external nares)->mouth/oral cavity->pharynx (internal nares)->larynx (anterior contains vocal cords)->trachea (next to esophagus)->primary, secondary, tertiary bronchi->bronchioles->alveolar ducts->alveoli (clustered into alveolar sacs)
Definition
Respiratory passage order
Term
Greater
Definition
inspiration occurs when atmospheric pressure is _____ than alveolar pressure
Term
less
Definition
Expiration occurs when atmospheric pressure is ____ than alveolar pressure
Term
Visceral pleurae
Definition
Inner membrane lining of sac that adheres to surface of lung
Term
Parietal pleurae
Definition
Outer membrane lining of sac that adheres to the thoracic wall and diaphragm
Term
Intrapleural space
Definition
Space between visceral & parietal pleurae that contains a thin layer of fluid that keeps both membranes in contact w/ each other
Term

1. Thoracic cavity expands (intercostal muscles contract, diaphragm is lowered)

2. Parietal pleurae is stretched, which

3. Stretches visceral pleurae

4. Lungs are thus stretched, lowering pressure of alveoli 

Definition
During inspiration:
Term

1. Rib cage rebounds after external intercostals relax

2. Diaphragm relaxes and rebounds to dome shape

3. Elastic lung helps exhalation 

Definition
During passive respiration:
Term

1. Contract internal intercostals to depress rib cage

2. Contract abdominal muscles to force viscera up against diaphragm 

Definition
During active respiration
Term

Surfactant

 

Definition
Phospholipid that reduces surface tension of water layer
Term
surface tension, reduce
Definition
____ is the attraction b/w water molecues that tends to ____ volume of alveoli
Term
Resting tidal volume (TV)
Definition
Amt of air inspired or expired/breath during normal respiration
Term
Inspiratory reserve volume
Definition
Amt of air that can be inspired beyond resting tidal inspiration
Term
Expiratory reserve volume (ERV)
Definition
Amt of air that can be expired beyond a resting tidal expiration
Term
Residual volume (RV)
Definition
Amt of air left in lungs after a max expiration
Term
Vital capacity (IRV+TV+ERV)
Definition
Max amt of air that can be expired after max inspiration
Term
Total lung capacity (IRV+TV+ERV+RV)
Definition
Total vol of lung after max inspiration
Term
Inspiratory capacity (IRV+TV)
Definition
Max amt of air that can be inspired after a normal expiration
Term
Functional residual capacity (ERV+RV)
Definition
Amt of air remaining in lungs after a normal expiration (ERV+RV)
Term
Minute volume (tidal volume x breaths/min)
Definition
Amt of air moved through respiratory system/min
Term
Epiglottis
Definition
Cartilaginous flap that prevents food from entering trachea
Term
Flow = (Difference in pressure)/(resistance)
Definition
Formula relating flow, pressure, and resistance
Term
7th
Definition
During development surfactant is produced after the ____ month of gestation
Term

poor alveolar ventilation

smooth muscles of pulmonary arterioles vasoconstrict 

Definition
If arterioles that run through interstitial space is low in O2 and high in CO2, then that means there is _____ and thus _____
Term

poor circulation

smooth muscles of of bronchioles dilate 

Definition
If arterioles that run through interstitial space is high in O2 and low in CO2, then that means there is _____ and thus _____
Term

1. Nose, mouth, & pharynx (lg on hairs, 10u or more on mucous)

2. Walls of bronchi, bronchioles, alveolar ducts (3-10u)

3. Alveoli (>0.3u particles diffuse into blood or are suspended in aerosols and exhaled)

Definition

Purification of air occurs at (sizes of particles settled here):

1.

2.

3. 

Term

1. Swallowing of mucous (moved upward by cilia to pharynx)

2. Sneezing 

Definition
Particles on respiratory tree are eliminated by:
Term

1. Engulfed by lymphocytes

2. Remain permanently encapsulated on surface

Definition
Particles on alveoli are eliminated by:
Term

21% O2

0.03% CO2

78% N2

1% Argon 

Definition
Gas %'s in normal air
Term

ppO2 = 159 mmHg

 ppCO2= 0.3 mmHg

Definition
Partial pressures of O2 and CO2 in atmospheric pressure (760 mmHg)
Term

37 deg

47 mmHg

150 mmHg 

Definition
Inpired air at the lungs is _____ degrees Celsius and contains _______ water vapor (saturated w/ water vapor).  Thus, ppO2 of air that reaches lung is ____
Term
gas tension
Definition
Amt of gas dissolved in a liquid is called
Term

1. solubility of gas in liquid

2. temp (colder = more soluble)

3. Partial pressure of gas in air phase in contact w/ liquid (high pressure = more soluble)

4. Saliinity (saltier = less soluble) 

Definition
At equilibrium, amt of gas in soln depends on:
Term
105 mmHg at 37 deg C
Definition
Gas tension of 3 ml O2/liter
Term

1. ppO2=159mmHg, ppCO2=0.3mmHg

2. ppO2=150mmHg

3. ppO2=105mmHg, ppCO2=40mmHg

4. ppO2=120mmHg, ppCO2=32mmHg 

5. PO2=40mmHg, PCO2=46mmHg

6. PO2=100mmHg, PCO2=40mmHg 

Definition

ppO2 & ppCO2 of air:

1. Entering nose

2. Entering lungs

3. In alveoli

4. Exhaled

5. Arterial blood to lungs

6. venous blood leaving lungs 

Term

1. Small amt is dissolved

2. 98% is attached to hemoglobin in RBCs 

Definition
Oxygen content of blood is:
Term

1. Made of 4 protein globins (2 alpha, 2 beta), each surrounds 1 heme

2. Each heme contains iron that binds to an O2 molecule

3. Binding is reversible and depends on pO2 

Definition

Properties of Hb

1.

2.

3. 

Term
It is difficult for first O2 molecule to attach to Hb, but heme-heme interaction allows 2nd, 3rd, & 4th oxygens to attach easily
Definition
Why sigmoid shape od O2 saturation vs. PO2 graph?
Term

increased 2,3-DPG, lower pH (Bohr shift), higher temp

allows for decreased Hb affinity for O2 (easier unloading of O2 at tissues)

Definition
In oxygen disassociation curve, shift right is caused by _____, ____ and ____, which _____
Term

1. Only 1 heme instead of 4

2. No heme-heme interaction; so affinity for O2 is high (shift left)

3. Found in striated muscle cells (skeletal/cardiac)  to enhance diffusion of O2 thru cytoplasm to mitochondria

Definition
Myoglobin characteristics:
Term
Carbonic anhydrase, carbonic acid H2CO3
Definition
Enzyme in RBC that helps form CO2 into ___
Term
HCO3- and H+
Definition
Carbonic acid dissociates into
Term
bicarbonate diffuses out of RBC down concentration gradient, allowing Cl- to move in
Definition
The Chloride Shift occurs when
Term
plasma and blood cell cytosol
Definition
CO2 dissovles in ___ and ____
Term
buffer the H+, thus reducing Hb affinity for O2
Definition
Because carbonic acid dissociates, hemoglobin must ____, thus
Term
carbaminohemoglobin
Definition
When CO2 binds to globin part of Hb it is known as
Term
medulla, higher centers in pons
Definition
Respiratory receptors are in _____, rate is controlled by _____
Term

1. Peripheral receptors (detect CO2, H+ in blood)

-aortic bodies

-carotid bodies

2. Central receptors in medulla (detect CO2, H+ in CSF) 

Definition
2 types of chemoreceptors, what they detect, & where located
Term
Hering-Breuer reflex
Definition

Reflex that inhibits overinflation of the lungs (inhibits inspiration centers in the medulla)

Lack of stretching during expiration inhibits expiratory centers 

Term

Helps regulate resting ventilation in newborns;

Not functional in adults at resting tidal volumes, but involved in respiratory control at high tidal volumes 

Definition
Stretch receptors _____ and ____
Term

remain constant in blood

rate and depth of ventilation increase 

Definition
During exercise, PO2 and PCO2 _____ in blood because ______
Term

1. Neural control b/c rate increases immediately

2. Chemical message as well b/c ventilation remains elevated after exercise ceases 

Definition
Cause of ventilation rate changes
Term

1. Hb loading may be impaired

2. Hb unloading is enhanced (2,3 DPG production stimulated by low PO2)

3. Amount of O2 in blood unchanged b/c bone marrow produces more Hb and RBCs 

Definition
Effects on respiration at high elevation
Term
Ingestion
Definition
Taking food into digestive system via mouth
Term
Mastication
Definition
Physical breakdown of food by chewing
Term
Digestion
Definition
Chemical breakdown of food
Term
Absorption
Definition
Movement of particles across the wall of the gut into the blood or lymph
Term
Peristalsis
Definition
Rhythmic contractions of digestive tract that move food
Term
Egestion
Definition
Movement of material out of the digestive tract back into the environment defecation and vomiting
Term
Oral cavity->pharynx->esophagus->stomach->small intestine->lg intestine
Definition
Gastrointestinal (GI) tract order
Term
serous membranes
Definition
Epithelial membranes that line cavities of body and organs that lie within those cavities
Term

pleurae

peritoneum

parietal peritoneum

visceral peritoneum 

Definition

Serous membranes in thorax are known as

in abdomen are known as 

lines body wall

lines organs 

Term
mesentery
Definition
Double layered membrane attaching gut to body wall
Term
omentum
Definition
Double layered membrane attaching two segments of GI tract
Term
bolus
Definition
Ball of food going through digestive tract
Term

glottis

epiglottis 

Definition
Opening of the trachea is called the ____ which closes with pressure from the larynx and the drop of the _______
Term
Gastroesophageal sphincter
Definition
Junction orifice b/w the esophagus and stomach, prevents stomach acid, chyme, bolus to come back up
Term

alcohol and aspirin

proteins & fats, acidic environment 

Definition
Stomach can absorb ___ and ____.  Some digestion of _____ occurs here b/c of _____ environment
Term
pyloric sphincter
Definition
Regulates flow of material from stomach to small intestine
Term

reflux           stomach acid

position of gastroesophageal sphincter is altered during pregnancy 

Definition

Heartburn is known as ____ and is caused by ____

This is common when ____ 

Term
stomach, b/c it's distensible
Definition
The storage organ in the GI tract
Term

1. goblet cells - secrete mucus

2. parietal cells- secrete HCl; helps absorb vitamin B12 (needed for maturation of RBCs)

3. chief cells- secrete pepsinogen

4. G cells - secrete gastrin

Definition
4 types of cells in gastric mucosa of stomach & function
Term

1. Higher affinity for O2 (shifted to left) b/c fetal Hb can't bind to 2,3 DPG

2. Allowed O2 to be transferred from maternal to fetal blood 

Definition
Fetal Hb characteristics:
Term
carbon monoxide
Definition
____ binds to Hb more readily than CO2, so if exposed to it, must get blood transfusion
Term
chyme
Definition
Food + water + enzymes
Term
amylase, which catabolizes starch
Definition
Saliva contains
Term

1. Denaturing proteins

2. Form pepsin from pepsinogen

3. Activate pepsin

4. Activate lipase secreted by salivary gland 

Definition

HCl is used for:

1-4 

Term

1. Mucus (alkaline) protects lining

2. Tight junctions of epithelial cells

3. Rapid replacement of epithelial cells 

Definition

There is no self-digestion b/c

1-3 

Term
Gastric ulcers
Definition
Erosions of gastric wall
Term
Helicobacter pylori
Definition
Acid tolerant bacteria that burrows under mucus and erods gastric epithelium
Term
cardia, fundus, body, pyloris
Definition
4 parts of stomach
Term
the duodenum
Definition
Bile and pancreatic ducts enter:
Term
G cells, stimulate parietal cells to secrete HCl
Definition
Gastrin is secreted by ____ and its function is____
Term
Duodenum, jejunum, ileum
Definition
3 parts of small intestine
Term

1. long tube

2. villi (each containing central lacteal surrounded by capillaries)

3. microvilli (brush border) 

Definition
3 ways that small intestine increases surface area for digestion/absorption
Term
Segmentation
Definition
Rhythymical contractions of small intestine in order to mix chyme
Term

1. Cecum (pouch at entry pt of ileum)

2. vermiform appendix (contains lymphatic tissue)

3. ileocecal valve (prevents backflow of chyme into ileum)

4. colon (ascending, transverse, descending)

5. rectum (terminal portion)

Definition
5 parts of lg intestine
Term

Anal canal

Internal anal sphincter

External anal sphincter 

Definition

Terminal portion of rectum

This part has smooth muscles

this has striated muscles 

Term
Mass movement
Definition
Strong peristaltic wave in lg intestine often stimulated by eating
Term
Na+, K+, water
Definition
These are absorbed in lg intesting
Term
lobules, triads (artery, vein, bile duct)
Definition
Liver is arranged in ____ surrounded by ____
Term
hepatic artery and hepatic portal vein (from intestines)
Definition
Blood supply of liver
Term

Bile canaliculi

hepatic ducts, common bile duct

 sphincter of Oddi

gall bladder, cystic duct 

Definition
_____ collect bile from liver cells and drain into ____.  These empty into the ___ which leads into the duodenum.  When duodenum is empty, the ______ closes and bile is stored in the ____ via the _____
Term

1. Bile production

2. Detox of blood

3. Metabolic regulation

4. Production of plasma proteins 

Definition
4 Functions of liver
Term
Bile salts
Definition
Derivatives of cholesterol that emulsify fats
Term
Gall stones
Definition
Occurs when cholesterol in bile salts precipitates out of soln
Term

Bilirubin

spleen or bone marrow

glucoronic acid

urobilinogen, gives feces dark color and urine its yellow color 

Definition

Breakdown product of heme groups (minus iron), transported to liver from ___ or ____

At liver, it is conjugated w/ ____ and then bacteria in intestines convert it to ____ which ____ 

Term
Glycogenesis
Definition
Converting of glucose from food to glycogen for storage
Term
Lipogenesis
Definition
Form triglycerides for storage
Term
Gluconeogenesis
Definition
Conversion of noncarbohydrates into glucose
Term
Glycogenolysis
Definition
Production of glucose from stored glycogen
Term
Exocrine
Definition
Secretion through a duct
Term
Endocrine
Definition
Secretion directly into bloodstream
Term

Acinar cells secrete inactive digestive enzymes, duct cells secrete HCO3- to neutralize acid chyme from stomach

Islets of Langerhans secrete insulin and glucagon

Definition

Pancreas

Exocrine part & function

Endocrine part & function

Term

1. Proteases (eg trypsinogen into trypsin, which activates chymotrypsinogen and procarboxypeptidase into chymotrypsin and carboxypeptidase)

2. Amylase, lipases, nucleases (active, but need ions or bile)

Definition
Enzyme activation of pancreas
Term
too much stress, not enough bicarbonate secretion, overactive parasympathetic response (too much acid produced in stomach)
Definition
Duodenal ulcers occur when:
Term

1. Pacemaker cells spontaneously depolarize, causing contraction

2. If stretching present, increased contractions (stretch receptors feedback via ANS) 

Definition
Intrinsic control of gastric function
Term

1. Cephalic phase (vagal stimulation of parietal, chief, G cells, increased stomach blood flow, salivation-- triggered by sight, taste, smell)

2.  Gastric phase (G cell secrete gastrin, parietal secrete HCl, & chief cells secrete pepsinogen in presence of protein fragments)

3. Intestinal phase - Gastric inhibitory peptide (GIP) produced to stop emptying into duodenum if too full 

Definition
Extrinsic control of gastric function
Term
Secretin
Definition
Secreted by duodenum in response to low pH (chyme entering from stomach) to stimulate pancreatic duct cells to secrete bicarbonate
Term

Cholecystokini (CCK)

pancreatic enzymes by acinar cells 

Definition
Hormone secreted by duodenum in response to fat content, stimulating production of
Term

1. Secretin

2. CCK

3. Nervous input from stretched duodenum causes gall bladder to contract 

Definition
Bile production increases due to:
Term
anabolism
Definition
Formation of large complex compounds from smaller organic materials; requires energy from ATP
Term
Catabolism
Definition
Breakdown of lg compound into smaller ones; liberates energy, some is stored as ATP, rest is lost as heat
Term

Alpha: glucagon

beta: insulin

delta: somatostatin 

Definition

In islets of Langerhans:

alpha, beta, and delta cells produce 

Term

Insulin: 1. Promotes uptake of glucose into cells

2. Promotes uptake of amino acids into cells and conversion into proteins

Glucagon: Promotes glycogen breakdown (to maintain glucose levels when low) 

Definition

Purpose of insulin

Purpose of glucagon 

Term

Parasympathetic input to beta cells

Sympathetic input to alpha cells 

Definition

Insulin secretion controlled by  ___

Glucagon controlled by ____ 

Term

1. Stretching of duodenum

2. Osmotic increase in contents

3. Presence of fats in lumen

Also stimulates beta cells to secrete insulin 

Definition
GIP is produced by duodenum when (3 reasons), and it also
Term

After meal, 170 mg/100 ml plasma

During fast 50mg %

 

Too high = dmg cells

low = not enough fuel for brain metabolism/function 

Definition

Range of blood glucose concen


If too high, then

too low, then 

Term
Hyperglycemia
Definition
___ is high blood sugar levels
Term
diabetes mellitus
Definition
Glucose is excreted in urine in
Term

Type I- beta cells of islets of langerhans are destroyed so lack of insulin

 

Type II-decreased tissue sensitivity to insulin 

Definition

Type I diabetes is

Type II is 

Term

Glucose becomes alpha glycerol phosphate or pyruvate, which is converted into acteyl CoA and then fatty acids.   3 fatty acids plus alpha glycerol phosphate becomes a triglyceride

Definition
Synthesis of fats in adipose
Term
Glucose enters, is phosphorylated, and then polymerizes
Definition
Synthesis of glycogen in liver and muscles
Term
Glucose sparing
Definition
Occurs during low insulin levels during a fast when blood glucose is reserved for brain and not taken up by most tissues
Term

1. Fatty acids (glucagon w/o insulin stimulates lipolysis)

2. Ketone bodies (glucagon stimulates liver enzymes to form ketones from fatty acids- known as ketogenesis)

Definition
During glucose sparing, skeletal muscles switch to metabolizing:
Term
Glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis
Definition
Glucagon stimulates these two processes during fasting
Term

1. Epinephrine

2. Glucocorticoids 

Definition
2 types of adrenal hormones
Term

from medulla

Similar to glucagon: glycogenolysis and lipolysis 

Definition
Epinephrine comes from __ and its effects
Term

cortex

1. Stimulated via ACTH from ant. pituitary in response to exercise/fasting

2. Promotes lipolysis and ketogenesis

3. Stimulates liver to make enzyes necessary for gluconeogenesis

4. Stimulates amino acid release from muscles (substrate for gluconeogenesis) 

Definition

Glucocorticoids come from ____  and effects

Term

1. Secreted as T4, converted to active form T3 (thyroxine)

2. Stimulates cellular metabolism (inc rate of Na/K pump)

3. Acts via DNA to increase protein production-- necessary for anabolism/growth of skeleton, muscles, CNS

Definition
Thyroxine characteristics
Term

Somatotrophin

increased amino acid concen and decreased glucose conc (aka after protein meal and after a fast)

 

Definition
Growth hormone (aka ____) secretion increase dpeends on
Term

promotoes anabolism of proteins

promotes breakdown of adipose  

Definition

GH is like insulin b/c

and like glucagon b/c 

Term

Stimulates liver production of intermediate hormones (somatomedins)

Somatomedins stimulate chondrocytes to lay down cartilage in growth zones of bone (which later ossify) 

Definition
GH action on growth
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