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A&P Lecture Final
A&P Lecture Final
149
Biology
Undergraduate 4
12/12/2009

Additional Biology Flashcards

 


 

Cards

Term
What causes Night Blindness?
Definition
Lack of Vitamin A
Term
A lack of Vitamin A leads to a depletion of _______.
Definition
rhodopsin
Term
Why does a lack of vitamin A result in a depletion of rhodopsin?  What does this deficiency result in?
Definition

Vitamin is required in the production of rhodopsin

 

 

Results in Night Blindness

Term
Rhodopsin
Definition

The visual pigment used in low light levels.

 

Requires vitamin A for production.

Term
Name 6 refractive conditions of the eye:
Definition

  1. emmetropia (normal refraction)
  2. presbyopia
  3. hyperopia = hypermetropia
  4. myopia
  5. astigmatism
  6. cataract

Term
Emmetropia
Definition

Normal refraction

 

 

Term
Presbyopia
Definition

"Old eye"

 

Natural elasticity of the eye is reduced, ability to focus on near items reduces

 

Reading glasses

Term
What kind of lens is required to correct presbyopia?
Definition

A convex lens:

to increase the power of the eye and focus near-objects on retina

Term
Hyperopia
Definition

"Farsightedness"

 

Caused by eyeball being to short

Light rays focus behind the retina

Term
What kind of lens is required to correct hyperopia?
Definition

A convex lens:

to increase the power of the eye

Term
Myopia
Definition

"Nearsightedness"

 

Caused by the eyeball being too long

Light rays focus in front of the retina

Term

What kind of lens is required to correct myopia?

Definition

A concave lens:

to decrease the power of the eye

Term
Astigmatism
Definition

Irregular curvature of the eye

 

Vertical lines can be focused, horizontal lines can not

Term

What kind of lens is required to correct astigmatism?

Definition
A cylindrical lens
Term
Cataract
Definition

loss of lens transparency... becomes opaque

 

requires lens removal corrective surgery

Term
Trichromats
Definition
normal color vision:  red, green, blue 
Term
What are dichromats and what are the three types?
Definition

only two of the color rods

 

 

  1. protanopes
  2. deuteranopes
  3. tritanopes

 

Term
Protanopes
Definition

Dichromat:  Green and blue, insensitive to red

 

Confuse:  Red, yellows, greens

Term
Deuteranopes
Definition

dichromat: can see blue and red

 

confuse:  reds, yellows, greens

Term
Tratanopes
Definition

Match all colors to red and green

 

Can not see blue

Term
Orthostatic hypotension
Definition

blood pressure falls when standing up causing a dizzy spell.

 

impaired baroreceptor reflex

 

often associated with shy-drager syndrome

Term
Shy-Drager Syndrome
Definition
failure of the barorecptor reflex
Term
Arteriosclerosis
Definition

hardening of the arteries

 

loss of elasticity in the arteries

 

caused by buildup of calcium

Term
Atherosclerosis
Definition

a chronic disease involving the deposition of plaques containing lipids and cholesterol in the coronary,carotid, and aorto-femoral vascular beds

 

causes Coronary Artery Disease (CAD)

Term
Hypertension
Definition
High blood pressure
Term
What are the two types of hypertension and what are they characterized by?
Definition

1.  Primary (aka essential) Hypertension:

arises from unknown causes

2.  Secondary Hypertension:
consequent of another condition such as kidney disease 

Term
Systolic Murmurs
Definition

S1 problem

 

A-V valves do not close properly

 

blood regurgitates into atrium during ventricular systol

Term
Diastolic murmur
Definition

S2 problems

 

semilunar valves do not close properly

 

blood regurgitates into ventricles during ventricular diastole

 

Term
Stenosis of the aortic valve or aorta
Definition

narrowing of the aortic valve or aorta

 

increases afterload

 

similar to effect of an increase in total peripheral resistance

Term
Systole
Definition
contraction
Term
diastole
Definition
relaxation
Term
Cardiac Arrhythias
Definition
abnormal cardiac rate or rhythm
Term
Which 5 areas of the heart can cause arrhythmias/conduction problems when there are problems?
Definition

  1. Sinus node (S-A node)
  2. Atria
  3. A-V nodal (junctional)
  4. A-V block and bundle branch black
  5. Ventricles

Term
What are 2 types of Sinus Node arrhythmias?
Definition

  1. Sinus tachycardia
  2. Sinus bradycardia

 

Term
Sinus tachycardia
Definition

an elevation in heart rate observed at rest

 

caused by an increased rate of depolarization and repolarization of the sinus node

 

rhythm is normal, but rate is greater than 100 bpm

Term
Sinus bradycardia
Definition

Slow heart rate

 

caused by a decreased rate of depolarization/repolarization of the sinus node

 

heart rate below 60 bpm

**may be normal for an athlete

Term
Atrial flutter
Definition

atrial arrhythmia

 

 

caused by waves of depolarization circling around the bands of atrial muscle fibers

 

atria may beat 250-300 bpm

 

 

Term

A-V Nodal Arrhythmias

 

Also, how is the ECG affected?

Definition

occurs when parts of the A-V node take over the pacemaker duties of the S-A node

 

rate of A-V node is lower than S-A node, so ventricles beat at rate of 40-60 bpm

 

P-wave is altered: lost into QRS complex or inverted

Term
First Degree A-V Block
Definition
Each P-wave is followed by a QRS, but the P-R interval is prolonged
Term
Second Degree A-V Block
Definition

Intermittent block

 

Some QRS are dropped

 

For example:  every second atrial beat may fail to get through the ventricles, therefore the atrial rate will be twice the ventricular rate

Term
Third Degree A-V Block
Definition

Complete heart block

 

Atria and ventricles beat independently of each other (no relationship between P-waves and QRS)

Term
Bundle Branch Block
Definition

conduction delay or block in the bundle branches (usually conduction delay)

 

one ventricle may depolarize somewhat later than the other = broadened QRS complex, maybe two R waves

 

splitting between S1 and S2 sounds

Term
Premature Ventricular Contraction
Definition

Generate wide and bizarre QRS complexes that do not have a preceding P-wave.

 

Caused by ectopic focus in one of the ventricles.

Term
Ectopic Focus
Definition

small region of the ventricular myocardium that decides to depolarize all on its own

 

caused by inflammatory disease, lack of blood, or drugs

Term
Ventricular Tachycardia
Definition

An ectcopic focus generates a depolarizing stimulus during the T-Wave  that causes circular waves of depolarization that pass repeatedly around the ventricular walls

 

ventricles beat 250-350 contractions/min

 

pumping efficiency is very poor b/c ventricles do not have time to filly and empty properly

Term

Ventricular Fibrillation

 

Definition

Lethal

 

electrical record rapid and achotic, myocardium contracts at random w/o coordination

 

heart no longer pumps blood

 

dead

Term
Angina Pectoris
Definition
pain resulting from a nociceptive stimulus to the heart
Term
Edema
Definition
tissue swelling when an abnormal excess of fluid builds up in the interstitial space
Term
4 Causes of Edema
Definition

  1. Increased venous hydrostatic pressure
  2. Reduced plasma osmotic pressure
  3. Increased interstitial fluid osmotic pressure
  4. Blocked lymphatics

Term

Discuss causes of Edema:

 

Increased venous hydrostatic pressure

Definition

Causes

  • standing for a long time
  • failing heart
-standing for a long time w/o moving the leg mescles can impair the venous pump and raise the pressure at the venous end of the capillaries in the legs and feet.


Term

Discuss causes of Edema:

 

Reduced plasma osmotic pressure

Definition

Causes:

  • malnutrition
  • liver disease

Term

Discuss causes of Edema:

 

Increased interstitial fluid osmotic pressure

Definition

Causes:

  • buildup of proteins in the interstitial space
-substances can increase the permeability of capillary walls to plasma proteins

-plasma proteins accumulate and increase interstitial fluid protein osmotic pressure

Term

Discuss causes of Edema:

 

Blocked lymphatics

Definition

Causes:

  • surgery
  • tumor
  • parasitic infection

Term
Filiariasis
Definition

parasitic inflammation of lymphatics

 

associated with Blocked lymphatics edema

Term
Pulmonary Edema
Definition

Fluid accumulation in the lungs

 

Could be caused by failure of the left ventricle:

right ventricle continues to pump blood into the lungs but the left cannot pump it away at the same rate.  rise in pressure in pulmonary veins/capillaries

 

Can cause death

Term

Hemorrhage

Definition
Causes hypovolemic shock
Term
Hypovolemic shock
Definition

Reduction in blood volume

 

 

Term
Ischemia
Definition
lack of adequate blood supply
Term
Myocardia Ischemia
Definition

occurs when the heart demands more oxygen than the coronary circulation is able to supply.

 

Influenced by inadequate supply (blood clot, thromboembolism, athersclerosis, it) or excessive demand 

 

 

Term
Myocardial Infarction
Definition

Heart Attack

 

interruption or reduction of coronary blood supply to the myocardium is so severe and long-lasting that function can no longer be sustained

 

the ischemic cardiac muscle cells that make up the affected myocardium become injured then die

Term
Circulatory Shock
Definition
syndrome characterized by inadequate blood flow to critical organs (heart, brain, liver, kidneys)
Term
4 Causes of Hypovolemic Shock
Definition

  1. Hemorrhage (loss of blood)
  2. Severe burns (loss of plasma)
  3. Vomiting (loss of fluid and electrolytes)
  4. Diarrhea (loss of fluid and electrolytes)

Term
Cardiogenic Shock
Definition

Major myocardial infarction

 

infarction of more than 40% of the myocardium

 

--> Decreased cardiac output --> decreased coronary flow --> myocardial ischemia --> reduced pumping efficiency -->

Term
Syncope
Definition
fainting
Term
Congestive Heart Disease
Definition

the structure or function of the heart impairs its ability to supply sufficient blood flow to meet the body's needs

 

symptoms:  edema (especially in lungs)

Term
Left Ventricular Hypertrophy Secondary to Elevated Afterload
Definition

thickening of the left myocardium of the left ventricle

 

increases the afterload that the heart has to contract against

 

caused by aortic stenosis, aortic insufficiency, or hypertension

Term
3 branches of the autonomic nervous system?
Definition

Sympathetic

Parasympathetic

Enteric

 

Term
Somatic motor neuron
Definition
excites skeletal muscles
Term
Properties of a somatic motor neuron:
Definition

  • excites skeletal muscles
  • Voluntary
  • neurotransmitter: acetylcholine

 

Term
The ANS controls which 3 effectors?
Definition

  1. cardiac muscle
  2. smooth muscle
  3. glands

Term
Neurons that release acetylcholine at their axon terminals are called ______.
Definition
cholinergic
Term
Neurons that release norepinephrine at their axon terminals are called _________.
Definition
adrenergic
Term
Enteric Nervous System
Definition

"brain in the gut"

 

many neurons located in the gastrointestinal tract.

 

one of it's neurotransmitters is serotonin

Term
The second ANS neuron is located in a _______ outside of the spinal cord.  This is the ________ neuron.
Definition

ganglion

 

postganglionic 

Term
Sympathetic nerve fibers exit where?
Definition
thoracolumbar spinal cord segments
Term
Parasympathetic Nerve Fibers exit where?
Definition
craniosacral region
Term
Sympathetic branch of the ANS
Definition

"Fight or Flight"

  1. Pupil dilation
  2. Heart rate and force of contraction increase
  3. Blood vessels in skin and viscera contract
  4. Dilation of bronchioles: faster movement of air into lungs
  5. Blood vessels in skeletal muscles dilate
  6. Liver glycogen converted to glucose
  7. Epinepherine and norepinephrine are secreted by adrenal medulla
  8. "Non-essential" activities are inhibited (digestive)

Term
Parasympathetic ANS
Definition

"Rest and Digest"

  1. Eye pupil constricted
  2. Increased motility of stomach
  3. Decreased rate of heart
  4. Lungs constricted
  5. Penis erection

Term

ANS: Sympathetic Branch

 

Form synapses with: (3)

Definition

  1. Paravertebral ganglia
  2. Collateral ganglia
  3. Adrenal Medulla

Term
Paravertebral ganglia
Definition

Sympathetic branch

 

form a chain on both sides of the vertebral column

 

Term

Collateral ganglia

(3 type)

Definition

  1. Superior mesenteric
  2. Inferior mesenteric
  3. Ciliac

Term

Adrenal Medulla

(Sympathetic branch of ANS)

Definition

  • Preganglionic fibers make synaptic contact with neurosecretory cells (in adrenal medulla)
  • Cells secrete epinephrine (adrenalin) norepinephrine into the bloodstream and are carried to all tissues in the body

Term
Ganglia
Definition
Second-order neurons located outside the CNS that synapse with motor neurons in the spinal cord
Term

Fill out the Chart:

[image]

Definition
[image]
Term
Sympathetic AND parasympathetic preganglionic neurons are __________ .
Definition
cholinergic
Term
Parasympathetic postganglionic neurons are ______.
Definition
cholinergic
Term
Most sympathetic postganglionic neurons are _______.
Definition
Adrenergic
Term
Sympathetic postganglionic neurons innervating eccrine sweat glands are _______ .
Definition
Cholinergic
Term
Sympathetic and parasympathetic postganglionic neurons all have _____ acetylcholine receptors.
Definition
nicotinic
Term
What receptors are found on the membrane of cells that respond to norepinephrine?
Definition
alpha- and beta-adrenergic
Term
What kind of receptors are found on cells that respond to acetylcholine released from autonomic nerve endings?
Definition
Muscarinic acetylcholine receptors
Term
[image]
Definition

A.  Cholinergic

B.  Adrenergic

C.  Nicotinic receptors

D.  Alpha- or Beta- adrenergic receptors

Term
[image]
Definition

A.  Cholinergic

B.  Cholinergic

C.  Nicotinic

D.  Muscarinic

Term
Optic Chiasma
Definition
Anterior to the pituitary gland, place where some optic fibers cross over
Term
Cone photoreceptors 
Definition

  • Color vision
  • bright light
  • high visual acuity

Term
Rod Photoreceptors
Definition

  • dim light
  • no color vision
  • low visual acuity

Term
Cells of the Retina
Definition

Neurons:

  • rods, cones 
  • bipolar cells
  • horizontal cells
  • amacrine cells
Glial Cells:
  • Mueller cells

Term
What are the functions of the retinal pigment epithelium?
Definition

  1. regulating the passage of nutrients from the choroidal blood into the retina
  2. metabolizing vitamin A
  3. removing fragments of membranes that have been shed by photoreceptors 

Term
Visual Pigments
Definition
a transmembrane protein (opsin) containing 11-cis retinal (Vit A aldehyde) found in the photoreceptor outer segments
Term
What is the rods visual pigment?
Definition
rhodopsin
Term
What happens to the 11-cis retinal when exposed to light?
Definition
It is converted to the all-trans retinal and rhodopsin loses its reddish color (said to be bleached)
Term
In the dark, the plasma membrane is permeable to _____ __ and is therefore partially _________.
Definition

sodium ions

 

depolarized

Term
Activation of the opsin molecule leads to a reduction of _______ ___________.
Definition
Sodium permeability 
Term
When activated by the absorption of light, rhodopsin initiates a series of event that leads to ______ of the photoreceptor membrane.
Definition
hyperpolarization
Term
What happens when sensory receptors such as Pacinian corpuscles are stimulated?
Definition

Increase in sodium permeability

 

Depolarization of the membrane

Term
Axons from ganglion cells in the ___ halves of each retina cross over to the opposite side of the optic chiasma.
Definition
Nasal
Term
Axons from ganglion cells in the ______ halves of each remain on the same side and do not cross over in the optic chiasma.
Definition
Lateral
Term
Left Visual Field imaged on the _____ temporal and _______ nasal retinas.
Definition
Right, Left
Term
Right Visual Field is imaged on the _______ temporal and the _________ nasal retinas.
Definition
Left, Right
Term
Information from the right visual field is segregated and transmitted to the _____ brain.
Definition
Left
Term
Function of Organ of Corti
Definition
converts vibrations into nerve impulses
Term
The base of the basilar membrane corresponds to _____ frequency sounds
Definition
high
Term

The apex of the basilar membrane corresponds to _____ frequency sounds

Definition
low
Term
Bending of the hair cells causes them to _______.
Definition
depolarize
Term
When hair cells depolarize the produce a _________ ______.
Definition
generator potential
Term
Nerve pathway from CN VIII to auditory area of the cerebral cortex.  (hint: 4 steps including CN and cortex)
Definition

  1. CN VIII and the spiral ganglion -->
  2. cochlear nucleus in the medulla -->
  3. medial geniculate nucleus in the thalamus -->
  4. primary auditory area of the cerebral cortex

Term
Our ability to sense the balance and motion of our bodies lies within the: 
Definition
vestibular apparatus of the inner ear
Term
What part of the vestibular apparatus sense rotation?
Definition
3 Semicircular canals
Term
What part of the vestibular apparatus senses tilt and acceleration?
Definition
Maculas:  utricle and saccule
Term
Nerve pathway via CN VIII (Vestibular branch) to the vestibulospinal tract:
Definition

  1. CN VIII -->
  2. Vestibular ganglion -->
  3. Vestibular nucleus in the medulla -->
  4. outputs to the cerebellum
  5. and vestibulospinal tract

Term
4 Factors determining Cardiac Output
Definition

  1. Preload
  2. Afterload
  3. Heart Rate
  4. Myocardial Contractility

Term
Myocardial Contractility
Definition
Strength of cardiac muscle contraction
Term
Preload is the ___-_____ ______.
Definition
end-diastolic volume
Term
End-Diastolic Volume
Definition
is the stretching of the muscle fibers in the ventricular myocardium
Term
Starling's Law of the Heart
Definition
The greater the preload, the greater will be the force of contraction WHICH increases cardiac output.
Term
[image]
Definition

A.  S1, Mitral Valve closing

B.  Aortic Semilunar Valve opens

C.  S2,  Aortic Semilunar Valve closes

D.  Mitral Valve opens

Term
Left Heart Pressures:[image]
Definition

A.  12 mm Mercury

B.  65 mm Mercury

C.  125 mm Mercury

Term
Right Heart Pressures
Definition

Much lower than left heart

 

Systolic right ventricular pressure:  30 mm Hg

Mean right atrial pressure:  7 mm Hg

Term
Which volume measurement is the minimum volume of the ventricles during the cardiac cycle?
Definition
End-systolic volume
Term

Which volume measurement is the maximum volume of the ventricles during the cardiac cycle?

Definition
End-Diastolic volume
Term
Increased myocardial contractility reduces the ___-_______ volume.
Definition
End-systolic volume
Term
Myocardial Contractility is Increased by: (3)
Definition

 

  1. norepinephrine and epinephrine acting via beta-adrenergic receptors in cardiac muscle cells in the ventricular myocardium
  2. increased extracellular calcium
  3. cardiotonic drugs such as digitalis, which increase intracellular calcium

 

Term
Stroke Volume =
Definition
end diastolic volume - end systolic volume
Term
ejection fraction =
Definition
stroke volume / end-diastolic volume
Term
increased myocardial contractility =
Definition
decreased end systolic volume
Term
Compare the duration of a cardiac action potential and a skeletal muscle (or nerve) action potential.
Definition

Cardiac action potential = 250 msec

Nerve action potential = 2 msec

Term
Compare the shape of a cardiac action potential graph and a skeletal muscle (or nerve) action potential graph. 
Definition

A cardiac muscle action potential has a very pronounced PLATEAU at PHASE 2

 

A nerve action potential does not

Term
What are the phases of the Cardiac Action Potential
Definition

  • Phase 0
  • Phase 1
  • Phase 2
  • Phase 3
  • Phase 4

Term
What ion channels are open or closed at each phase of the cardiac action potential?
Definition

  • Phase 0:  opening of voltage-gated Sodium channels
  • Phase 1:  closing of voltage-gated Sodium channels
  • Phase 2:  opening of slow, voltage-gated calcium channels;  causes decrease in potassium permeability
  • Phase 3:  closing of the slow calcium channels; increase of potassium permeability

Term
At which point in the cardiac action potential are calcium ions entering the cell??
Definition
Phase 2, the "plateau"
Term

At which point in the cardiac action potential are sodium ions entering the cell??

Definition
Phase 0
Term
What effect do catecholamines have on the inward flow of calcium ions and how does this affect myocardial contractility?
Definition

increase the inward calcium current

 

enhances cardiac contractily

Term
Catecholamines
Definition

Epinephrine and Norepinephrine

 

released at sympathetic nerve terminals or from adrenal medulla during sympathetic activation

 

increase inward calcium current, enhances cardiac contractility

Term
What are beta-blockers?
Definition

drugs that block the action of catecholamines on the heart

 

bind to and block β-adrenergic receptors

Term
2 effects of beta-blockers on heart function:
Definition

  1. used to moderate the effect of acceleration and increased contractility on the heart
  2. decreases the strain on the heart by diminishing frequency and severity of anginal attacks

Term
What senses deceleration?
Definition
utricles
Term
what senses acceleration?
Definition
saccule
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